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KKHSOU-2013
Sub: English BA First Semester
A.Ans.to Q. No. 1.
Simon
Lee did not care for the “husbandry or tillage” because he was interested more
in hunting than to engage in cultivating.
A.Ans.to Q. No. 2.
A dramatic
is a poem about a single person, who is patently not the poet,
utters the speech that makes up the whole of the poem, in a specific situation
at a critical moment. This person
addresses and interacts with one or more other people; but we know of the
auditors' presence, and what they say and do, only from clues in the discourse
of the single speaker.
Alfred, Lord Tennyson's Ulysses, published in 1842, has been called the
first true dramatic monologue.
A.Ans.to Q. No.3.
The poem
"An Irish Airman Foresees His Death" is reflective of the fact that
the airman foresaw his impending death. This title is significant in that it
reflects the fate that many people fighting in war face. They know their death
is approaching them with very little they can do about it.
This poem takes place around 1916 during one of the Irish
civil wars in the skies over Ireland.
A.Ans.to Q. No. 4.
According to the prison doctor, Falder threw
himself from the buiding and killed because of the mental agony. He killed
himself for the crime that he committed and in the process brought about a good
ending to the drama.
B. Ans.to
Q. No. 1.
Simon Lee is a ballad and it tells about a
story in regular stanzas. The poet Wordsworth wrote this after he encountered
with an old huntsman.
In the poem, the poet has juxtaposed the present
and the past In describing the huntsman Simon Lee who lives in penury in
Cardiganshire. After that, he immediately takes the reader to the past when
Simon Lee was a strong and bold man who did not have any rival in hunting. His
use of interjections in the narratives such as:
“My
gentle reader/I perceive/ How patiently you’ve waited/and how I feel that you
expect” are examples that about his personal feelings and sentiments regarding
the incident.
The
use of irony, moral lesson, and deep evocative thoughts in the poem add to the
rich mature thoughts that the poet has in store.
B.Ans.to Q. No. 2.
"Tears, Idle Tears" is
a lyric poem written
in 1847 by Alfred, Lord Tennyson (1809–1892),
the Victorian-era English
poet. Published as one of the "songs" in his The Princess (1847), it is regarded for the quality
of its lyrics. A Tennyson anthology describes the poem as "one of the most Virgilian of
Tennyson's poems and perhaps his most famous lyric". Readers
often overlook the poem's blank verse the poem does not rhyme.
The final stanza in
particular strongly suggests Tennyson's unhappy attachment to the lovely Rosa Baring,
whose wealthy family lived in Harrington Hall, a short distance from Tennyson's
Somersby.
"Tears, Idle Tears" is noted for
its lyric richness, and for its tones of paradox and ambiguity—especially as
Tennyson did not often bring his doubts into the grammar and symbolism of his
works. The ambiguity occurs in the contrasting descriptions of the tears: they
are "idle", yet come from deep within the narrator; the "happy
autumn-fields" inspire sadness. The poet is able, as in 'Tears, Idle
Tears', to analyze his experience, and in the full light of the disparity and
even apparent contradiction of the various elements, bring them into a new
unity, he secures not only richness and depth but dramatic power as well.
B.Ans.to Q. No. 3.
A metaphor is
a figure of speech that
describes a subject by asserting that it is, on some point of comparison, the
same as another otherwise unrelated object.
The metaphor “Drove to this tumult in the clouds” in the poem tells of
an Irish airman fighting in World War I, declares that he knows he will die
fighting among the clouds. He says that he does not hate those he fights, nor
love those he guards. His country is “Kiltartan’s Cross,” his countrymen
“Kiltartan’s poor.” He says that no outcome in the war will make their lives
worse or better than before the war began. He says that he did not decide to
fight because of a law or a sense of duty, nor because of “public men” or
“cheering crowds.” Rather, “a lonely impulse of delight” drove him to “this
tumult in the clouds.” He says that he weighed his life in his mind, and found
that “The years to come seemed waste of breath, / A waste of breath the years
behind.”
B.Ans.to Q. No. 4
John Galsworthy intentionally chose the title “Justice” in order to
satirise the contemporary social and legal systems of the country, which in the
name of ‘justice’ forced the helpless individuals like Falder and Ruth to
suffer and perish finally in the most inhuman way in a ‘civilised’ society.
“Justice” is different from the other tragedies written in Aristotelian
formula. There is no conventional hero-villain conflict in the play. The
central protagonist Falder is not at all a heroic figure; rather he is of a
weak-willed and nervous personality. Again, the place of the villain has been
taken by the inhuman social and legal systems, to which the hero becomes a
victim.
In Galsworthy’s Justice
the central protagonist, Falder is a weak-willed and nervous person with a good
intention of providing relief to a suffering woman. In so doing he commits a
crime which leads him to prison and to death. Thus he becomes a pathetic figure
rather than a tragic one.
C. Ans.to Q. No. 1.
In Galsworthy’s “Justice” Cokeson, the head clerk of How’s firm, is a
good-natured person, but he has his limitations as a member of the lower
middleclass. He understands Falder and feels for him, but he cannot go against
his employer. Finally, he answers all fittingly at the end when Falder dies.
Tortured by her drunkard husband almost to death, Ruth Honeywell comes to meet
Falder for being rescued from him. But in the office, Cokeson tells her that
such personal affairs are not entertained. This forces Ruth to entreat him with
these words.
Falder’s defence counsel, Mr. Frome introduces the metaphor of machine
in order to convey the sense that the legal system operates in such an inhuman
way that it makes mockery of the concept of ‘justice’ and destroys the
individual completely. The end of the drama, the end of Falder’s life proves
his words. In the course of sentencing Falder to imprisonment, the judge as a
protector and agent of the existing legal system asserts that the institution
of law is a noble one. It seeks to protect the good citizens from the bad ones,
to protect the society. The judge is the spokesman of the conventional concept
of ‘justice’ in the contemporary judicial system. Naturally, his opinions and
views do not go by human norms.
C.Ans.to Q. No. 2.
According to Herbert F. Tucker 'Tears, idle tears' is 'probably the
greatest of the “Princess songs” and certainly the one that has
received the most illuminating critical analysis'. 'From the best readings',
claims Tucker, 'a consensus emerges that "Tears, idle tears" provides
a symbolic meditation on the paradoxical presence of absence within the memory'.
Tucker describes how Tennyson himself eventually said 'Tears, idle
tears' was about 'the passion of the past' and 'the yearning that young people
occasionally experience for that which seems to have passed away from them for
ever'. How useful do you think these authorial statements are as keys to
understanding the poem? 'Tennyson's comments' - according to Tucker - 'point to
an indwelling mood, a state of mind occasionally experienced by anyone but
belonging to no one, independent of personal control'. Inspired by the insights
of another literary critic, Timothy Peltason, Tucker then suggests that 'the
subject of this poem is not "thinking of the days that are no more"
but rather thinking about thinking about those days'.
D. Ans.to Q. No. 1.
"I do not expect India of my dreams to develop one religion, i.e.,
to be wholly Hindu or wholly Christian or wholly Mussalman, but I want it to be
wholly tolerant, with its religions working side by side with one another.'' So
said Mahatma Gandhi.
India has been declared a secular state by its written constitution and
it is every Indians duty to stand by and believe in this declaration. And yet
recent political and social events have questioned this declaration. Is India a
secular country only on paper or does secularism actually exist in India; or is
in the form of pseudo- secularism, a term the BJP and its allies seem to
repeatedly harp on.
During the freedom struggle, secularism was emerging as the most
dominant principle. The leaders of the Indian National Congress; Gandhi,
Maulana Abul Kalam Azad, Nehru and others were deeply committed to the ideal of
secularism, though each expressed it in very different manners. Secularism
became the mantra of the Indian nation, a nation exhausted by partition and
sectarian riots and above all the assassination of Gandhiji, did not want any
more divisive talk. The founding fathers represented the aspirations of the
different sections of society and it is due to the struggles of these different
people that secular principles got enshrined into the Indian constitution.
In the post Independent scenario the
social dynamics was very complex. The process of
secularisation/industrialisation was going on at a slow pace. Even at this
stage, though constitution was secular, the state apparatus: the bureaucracy,
the judiciary, the army and the police were infiltrated by communal elements.
The Congress government, though predominantly secular, had many leaders in
important positions who were influenced by a Hindu communal ideology. This
resulted in a social development that was mixed; on the one hand secularism
thrived and on the other though communalism remained dormant, was never dead.
With the social changes of the late 70's and the early 80's, communalism got a
strong boost and it started attacking secularism in a big way.
Today, the biggest challenge to the Indian
nation is coming from forces claiming to represent the mainstream majority.
There is an emergence of extremist voices that claim to speak for Hindus and
they are laying down demands that threaten the very idea of a secular India.
The biggest area of concern is that the state has emerged to be complicit, as
an actor and player in mounting this challenge to Indian pluralism, which goes
under the name of Hindutva.
In the end, secularism begins in the
heart of every individual. There should be no feeling of "otherness"
as we all have is a shared history. India being a traditional society that
contains many traditions owing their
origin in part to the different religions that exist here, has so far managed
to retain the secular character of its polity. Ours is a society where Sufis
and Bhakti saints have brought in a cultural acceptance for each other. Are we
going to let it all go to waste and listen to people who have concern for their
careers as politicians or leaders rather than our welfare at heart? Let us
instead concentrate our efforts at making India a powerful and progressive
nation.
D.Ans.to
Q. No. 2.
|
To
The
Director of Health Services
Hengrabari Guwahati 78001
Assam
Dated
the 26th October, 2013
Subject:
Report on the Surprise Check on two Hospitals in Guwahati
Respected
Sir,
In response to your letter dated
5th October 2013 I have the
honour to submit a Report on the two hospitals that I have visited without
their prior knowledge in order to get the reality of the working conditions
of the City Hospitals. That sir the
reports are attached herewith for your kind information and necessary action.
Report
1
On 16 October 2013, Tuesday I visited to
The Metro Hospital, Guwahati located at Pub Sarania along with Dr. Ranjit
Boro, Chief Consultant Guwahati Medical College and Mr. Arup Borbora, MPW of
Jalukbari Health Centre. It was found that the hospital has sufficient rooms
and infrastructure and well maintained but it lacked staff. There was only 5
nurses on duty and 2 doctors. The number of patients on bed were 53 and only
the nurses were doing a routine visits. When asked, the people attending to
their patients told me that the doctor visited them only once a day. There
were patients crying in agony and they were told to wait for the doctor in
the evening.
When checked, the records of the
deceased patient were alarming. It registered death of patients after surgery
as follows: 27% in 2010, 34% in 2011 1nd 43% in 2012.
The
authorities should take notice of these problems and increase the surgeons so
that the numbers of casualty in such case decrease to a great extent. The
number of the staff should be increased or else the intake capacity of the
hospital be minimise to 30 bed.
Report
2
On
19 October 2013, Tuesday I visited to the Jalukbari Govt. Hospital, Guwahati
located at Jalukbari along with Dr. Khagen Sarma, Chief Gynocologist,
Guwahati Medical College and Mr. Anjan Bora, MPW of Mirza Health Centre.
However, looking at the scenario of poor
sanitation and hygiene facilities of the hospital it appears that this has
rather turned into breeding grounds for viruses and bacteria, a source of
epidemics etc.
Wards are infested with cats, the
floors and corners of the rooms are spilled with sputum, and the operation
theatres are in a dilapidated condition and are poorly-equipped. It surprises
me how operations are performed in such conditions.
The authorities should take notice
of these problems and increase the budgets for this hospital rather than pass
bills to increase the salaries of the MPAs.
Yours sincerely
Mekinzie Basumatary
Inspector of Hospitals
West Guwahatu Zone
Guwahati-78002
Assam
Co-Signatories
Dr. Ranjit Boro
Dr. Khagen Sangma,
Chief Consultant
Chief Gynocologist
Guwahati Medical College Guwahati Medical College
Mr. Arup Goyari, MPW
Health Centre of Jalukbari
Mr. Anjan Bora, MPW
Mirza Health Centre
|
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PROJECT WORK FOR DIPLOMA IN ELEMENTARY EDUCATION (D. Ed)
Nature versus nurture:
The nature versus nurture debate is a debate concerning the
relative importance of an individual's innate qualities ("nature,"
i.e.nativism, or innatism) versus personal experiences
("nurture," i.e. empiricism or behaviorism) in determining or causing individual differences in physical and behavioral traits.
The
phrase "Nature versus nurture" in its modern sense was coined[1][2][3] by the English Victorian polymath Francis Galton in discussion of the
influence of heredity and environment on social advancement,
although the terms had been contrasted previously, for example by Shakespeare (in his play, The Tempest: 4.1). Galton was influenced[4] by the book On the Origin of Species written by his cousin, Charles Darwin. The concept embodied in the
phrase has been criticized[3][4] for its binary simplification
of two tightly interwoven parameters, as for example an environment of wealth,
education and social privilege are often historically passed to genetic
offspring. The difference being that wealth, education and social privilege are
not part of the human biological system, and so cannot be directly attributed
to genetics.
The
view that humans acquire all or almost all their behavioral traits from
"nurture" was termed tabula rasa ("blank slate") by
philosopherJohn
Locke, and
proposes that humans develop only from environmental influences. This question
was once considered to be an appropriate division of developmental influences,
but since both types of factors are known to play such interacting roles in
development, most modern psychologists and anthropologists consider the
question naive—representing an outdated state of knowledge.[5][6][7][8]
In
the social and political sciences, the nature versus nurture
debate may be contrasted with the structure versus agency debate (i.e.socialization versus individual autonomy).
For a discussion of nature versus nurture in language and other human
universals,
see alsopsychological nativism.
Scientific approach
To
disentangle the effects of genes and environment, behavioral geneticists perform adoption and twin studies. These seek to decompose the
variance in a population into genetic and environmental components. This move
from individuals to populations makes a critical difference in the way we think
about nature and nurture. This difference is perhaps highlighted in the quote
attributed to psychologist Donald Hebb who is said to have once
answered a journalist's question of "which, nature or nurture, contributes
more to personality?" by asking in response, "Which contributes more
to the area of a rectangle, its length or its width?"[9] For a particular rectangle,
its area is indeed the product of its length and width. Moving to a population,
however, this analogy masks the fact that there are many individuals, and that
it is meaningful to talk about their differences.[10]
Scientific
approaches also seek to break down variance beyond these two categories of
nature and nurture. Thus rather than "nurture", behavior geneticists
distinguish shared family factors (i.e., those shared by siblings, making them
more similar) and nonshared factors (i.e., those that uniquely affect
individuals, making siblings different). To express the portion of the variance
due to the "nature" component, behavioral geneticists generally refer
to the heritability of a trait.
With
regard to personality traits and adult IQ in the general U.S. population, the
portion of the overall variance that can be attributed to shared family effects
is often negligible.[11]
In
her Pulitzer Prize-nominated book The Nurture Assumption, author Judith
Harris argues that
"nurture," as traditionally defined in terms of family upbringing
does not effectively explain the variance for most traits (such as adult IQ and the Big Five personality traits) in the general population of the United
States. On the contrary, Harris suggests that either peer groups or random
environmental factors (i.e., those that are independent of family upbringing)
are more important than family environmental effects.[12][13]
Although
"nurture" has historically been referred to as the care given to
children by the parents, with the mother playing a role of particular
importance, this term is now regarded by some as any environmental (not
genetic) factor in the contemporary nature versus nurture debate. Thus the definition
of "nurture" has expanded to include influences on development
arising from prenatal, parental, extended family, and peer experiences, and
extending to influences such as media, marketing, and socio-economic status.
Indeed, a substantial source of environmental input to human nature may arise from stochastic
variations in prenatal development.[14][15]
Heritability estimates
This chart illustrates three patterns one might
see when studying the influence of genes and environment on traits in individuals.
Trait A shows a high sibling correlation, but little heritability (i.e. high
shared environmental variance c2; low heritability h2). Trait B shows a high heritability since correlation of trait
rises sharply with degree of genetic similarity. Trait C shows low
heritability, but also low correlations generally; this means Trait C has a
high non-shared environmental variance e2. In other words, the degree to which individuals display Trait C
has little to do with either genes or broadly predictable environmental
factors—roughly, the outcome approaches random for an individual. Notice also
that even identical twins raised in a common family rarely show 100% trait
correlation.
It
is important to note that the term heritability refers only to the degree of
genetic variation between people on a trait. It does not refer to the degree to
which a trait of a particular individual is due to environmental or genetic
factors. The traits of an individual are always a complex interweaving of both.[16] For an individual, even
strongly genetically influenced, or "obligate" traits, such as eye
color, assume the inputs of a typical environment during ontogenetic
development (e.g., certain ranges of temperatures, oxygen levels, etc.).
In
contrast, the "heritability index" statistically quantifies the
extent to which variation between individuals on a trait is due to
variation in the genes those individuals carry. In animals where breeding and
environments can be controlled experimentally, heritability can be determined
relatively easily. Such experiments would be unethical for human research. This
problem can be overcome by finding existing populations of humans that reflect
the experimental setting the researcher wishes to create.
One
way to determine the contribution of genes and environment to a trait is to study twins. In one kind of study, identical twins reared apart are compared to
randomly selected pairs of people. The twins share identical genes, but
different family environments. In another kind of twin study, identical twins
reared together (who share family environment and genes) are compared to fraternal twins reared together (who also
share family environment but only share half their genes). Another condition
that permits the disassociation of genes and environment isadoption. In one kind of adoption
study, biological siblings reared together (who share the same family
environment and half their genes) are compared to adoptive siblings (who share
their family environment but none of their genes).
In
many cases, it has been found that genes make a substantial contribution,
including psychological traits such as intelligence and personality.[17] Yet heritability may differ
in other circumstances, for instance environmental deprivation.[18] Examples of low, medium, and
high heritability traits include:
|
Low heritability
|
Medium heritability
|
High heritability
|
|
Specific language
|
Weight
|
Blood type
|
|
Specific religion
|
Religiosity
|
Eye color
|
Twin
and adoption studies have their methodological limits. For example, both are
limited to the range of environments and genes which they sample. Almost all of
these studies are conducted in Western, first-world countries, and therefore
cannot be extrapolated globally to include poorer, non-western populations.
Additionally, both types of studies depend on particular assumptions, such as
the equal environments assumption in the case of twin studies,
and the lack of pre-adoptive effects in the case of adoption studies.
Interaction of genes and environment
|
“
|
Many properties of the brain are genetically organized,
and don't depend on information coming in from the senses.
|
”
|
Heritability
refers to the origins of differences between people. Individual development,
even of highly heritable traits, such as eye color, depends on a range of
environmental factors, from the other genes in the organism, to physical
variables such as temperature, oxygen levels etc. during its development or
ontogenesis.
The
variability of trait can be meaningfully spoken of as being due in certain
proportions to genetic differences ("nature"), or environments
("nurture"). For highly penetrantMendelian genetic disorders such as Huntington's disease virtually all the incidence
of the disease is due to genetic differences. Huntington's animal models live much
longer or shorter lives depending on how they are cared for[citation needed].
At
the other extreme, traits such as native language are environmentally
determined: linguists have found that any child (if capable of learning a
language at all) can learn any human language with equal facility.[19] With virtually all biological
and psychological traits, however, genes and environment work in concert,
communicating back and forth to create the individual.
At a
molecular level, genes interact with signals from other genes and from the
environment. While there are many thousands of single-gene-locus traits,
so-called complex traits are due to the additive effects of many (often
hundreds) of small gene effects. A good example of this is height, where variance
appears to be spread across many hundreds of loci.[20]
Extreme
genetic or environmental conditions can predominate in rare circumstances—if a
child is born mute due to a genetic mutation, it will not learn to speak any
language regardless of the environment; similarly, someone who is practically
certain to eventually develop Huntington's disease according to their genotype
may die in an unrelated accident (an environmental event) long before the
disease will manifest itself.
The "two buckets" view of
heritability.
More realistic "homogenous mudpie"
view of heritability.
concrete behavioral traits that patently depend
on content provided by the home or culture—which language one speaks, which
religion one practices, which political party one supports—are not heritable at
all. But traits that reflect the underlying talents and temperaments—how
proficient with language a person is, how religious, how liberal or
conservative—are partially heritable.
When
traits are determined by a complex interaction of genotype and environment it is
possible to measure the heritability of a trait within a
population. However, many non-scientists who encounter a report of a trait
having a certain percentage heritability imagine non-interactional, additive
contributions of genes and environment to the trait. As an analogy, some
laypeople may think of the degree of a trait being made up of two
"buckets," genes and environment, each able to hold a certain
capacity of the trait. But even for intermediate heritabilities, a trait is
always shaped by both genetic dispositions and the environments in which people
develop, merely with greater and lesser plasticities associated with these
heritability measures.
Heritability
measures always refer to the degree of variation between individuals
in a population. These statistics cannot be applied at the level of the
individual. It is incorrect to say that since the heritability index of personality
is about 0.6, you got 60% of your personality from your parents and 40% from
the environment. To help to understand this, imagine that all humans were
genetic clones. The heritability index for all traits would be zero (all
variability between clonal individuals must be due to environmental factors).
And, contrary to erroneous interpretations of the heritibility index, as
societies become more egalitarian (everyone has more similar experiences) the
heritability index goes up (as environments become more similar, variability
between individuals is due more to genetic factors).
Some
have pointed out that environmental inputs affect the expression of genes (see
the article on epigenetics). This is one explanation of
how environment can influence the extent to which a genetic disposition will
actually manifest.[citation needed] The interactions of genes
with environment, called gene–environment interactions, are another component of the nature–nurture
debate. A classic example of gene–environment interaction is the ability of a
diet low in the amino acid phenylalanine to partially suppress the
genetic diseasephenylketonuria. Yet another complication to
the nature–nurture debate is the existence of gene-environment correlations. These correlations indicate that individuals
with certain genotypes are more likely to find themselves in certain
environments. Thus, it appears that genes can shape (the selection or creation
of) environments. Even using experiments like those described above, it can be
very difficult to determine convincingly the relative contribution of genes and
environment.
A
very convincing experiment conducted by T.J. Bouchard, Jr. has shown data that
has been significant evidence for the importance of genes when testing
middle-aged twins reared together and reared apart. The results shown have been
important evidence against the importance of environment when determining,
happiness, for example. In the Minnesota study of twins reared apart, it was
actually found that there was higher correlation for monozygotic twins reared
apart (.52)than monozygotic twins reared together (.44). Also, highlighting the
importance of genes, these correlations found much higher correlation among
monozygotic than dizygotic twins that had a correlation of .08 when reared
together and -.02 when reared apart (Lykken & Tellegen, 1996).
Obligate vs. Facultative Adaptations
Traits
may be considered likely to be adaptations (such as the umbilical cord),
byproducts of adaptations (the belly button) or due to random variation (convex
or concave belly button shape).[21] An alternative to contrasting
nature and nurture focuses on "obligate vs. facultative" adaptations [21] Adaptations may be generally
more obligate (robust in the face of typical environmental variation) or more
facultative (sensitive to typical environmental variation). For example, the
rewarding sweet taste of sugar and the pain of bodily injury are obligate
psychological adaptations—typical environmental variability during development
does not much affect their operation.[22] On the other hand,
facultative adaptations are somewhat like "if-then" statements. An
example of a facultative psychological adaptation may be adult attachment style. The attachment style of
adults, (for example, a "secure attachment style," the propensity to
develop close, trusting bonds with others) is proposed to be conditional on
whether an individual's early childhood caregivers could be trusted to provide
reliable assistance and attention. An example of a facultative physiological
adaptation is tanning of skin on exposure to sunlight (to prevent skin damage).
Advanced techniques[
The
power of quantitative studies of heritable traits has been expanded by the
development of new techniques. Developmental genetic
analysis examines the effects of genes
over the course of a human lifespan. For example, early studies of
intelligence, which mostly examined young children, found that heritability measures 40–50%. Subsequent
developmental genetic analyses found that variance attributable to additive
environmental effects is less apparent in older individuals,[23][24][25] with estimated heritability
of IQ being higher than that in adulthood.
Another
advanced technique, multivariate genetic analysis, examines the genetic
contribution to several traits that vary together. For example, multivariate
genetic analysis has demonstrated that the genetic determinants of all specific
cognitive abilities (e.g., memory, spatial reasoning, processing speed) overlap
greatly, such that the genes associated with any specific cognitive ability
will affect all others. Similarly, multivariate genetic analysis has found that
genes that affect scholastic achievement completely overlap with the genes that
affect cognitive ability.
Extremes
analysis,
examines the link between normal and pathological traits. For example, it is
hypothesized that a given behavioral disorder may represent an extreme of a
continuous distribution of a normal behavior and hence an extreme of a
continuous distribution of genetic and environmental variation. Depression,
phobias, and reading disabilities have been examined in this context.
For
a few highly heritable traits, some studies have identified loci associated
with variance in that trait in some individuals. For example, research groups
have identified loci that are associated with schizophrenia (Harrison and Owen, 2003) in
subsets of patients with that diagnosis.
“Give
me a dozen healthy infants, well-formed, and my own specified world to bring
them up in and I'll guarantee to take any one at random and train him to become
any type of specialist I might select – doctor, lawyer, artist, merchant-chief
and, yes, even beggar-man and thief, regardless of his talents, penchants,
tendencies, abilities, vocations, and race of his ancestors.” – John B. Watson
The
nature side of this debate emphasizes how much of an organism reflects
biological factors. But, on the other hand genes are activated at appropriate
times during development and are the basis for protein production. Proteins
include a wide range of molecules, such as hormones and enzymes that act in the
body as signaling and structural molecules to direct development. When looking
at the influence of genes in the Nature vs. Nurture debate there has been found
to be variation in the promotor region of the serotonin transporter gene
(5-HTTLPR). The discovery of this inherited, genetic "happiness gene"
is promising evidence for the nature side of the debate when measuring life
satisfaction (Jan-Emmanuel De Neve, 2010). The nurture side, on the other hand,
emphasizes how much of an organism reflects environmental factors. In reality,
it is most likely an interaction of both genes and environment, nature and
nurture, that affect the development of a person. Even in the womb, genes
interact with hormones in the environment to signal the start of a new
developmental phase. The hormonal environment, likewise, does not act
independently of the genes and it cannot correct lethal errors in the genetic
makeup of a fetus. The genes and the environment must be in sync for normal
development. Similarly, even if a person has inherited genes for taller than
average height, the person may not grow to be as tall as is genetically
possible if proper nutrition is not provided. Here too the interaction of genes
and the environment is blurred. It has been suggested that the key to
understanding complex human behaviour and diseases is to study genes, the
environment, and the interactions between the two equally.[26]
Evidence
suggests that family environmental factors may have an effect upon childhood IQ, accounting for up to a quarter of the variance. The American
Psychological Association's report "Intelligence: Knowns and
Unknowns" (1995) states that there is no doubt that normal child
development requires a certain minimum level of responsible care. Here,
environment is playing a role in what is believed to be fully genetic
(intelligence) but it was found that severely deprived, neglectful, or abusive
environments have highly negative effects on many aspects of children's
intellect development. Beyond that minimum, however, the role of family
experience is in serious dispute. On the other hand, by late adolescence this
correlation disappears, such that adoptive siblings no longer have similar IQ
scores.[27]
Moreover,
adoption studies indicate that, by adulthood, adoptive siblings are no more
similar in IQ than strangers (IQ correlation near zero), while full siblings
show an IQ correlation of 0.6. Twin studies reinforce this pattern: monozygotic
(identical) twins raised separately are highly similar in IQ (0.74), more so
than dizygotic (fraternal) twins raised together (0.6) and much more than
adoptive siblings (~0.0).[28] Recent adoption studies also
found that supportive parents can have a positive effect on the development of
their children.[29]
Personality is a frequently cited example
of a heritable trait that has been studied in twins and adoptions. The most
famous categorical organization of heritable personality traits were created by
Goldberg (1990) in which he had college students rate their personalities on
1400 dimensions to begin, and then narrowed these down into "The Big Five" factors of personality—Openness, conscientiousness,
extraversion, agreeableness, and neuroticism. The close genetic relationship
between positive personality traits and, for example, our happiness traits are
the mirror images of comorbidity in psychopathology(Kendler et al., 2006,
2007). These personality factors were consistent across cultures, and many
experiments have also tested the heritability of these traits. Identical twins
reared apart are far more similar in personality than randomly selected pairs
of people. Likewise, identical twins are more similar than fraternal twins.
Also, biological siblings are more similar in personality than adoptive
siblings. Each observation suggests that personality is heritable to a certain
extent. A supporting article had focused on the heritability of personality
(which is estimated to be around 50% for subjective well-being) in which an
experiment was conducted using a representative sample of 973 twin pairs to
test the heritable differences in subjective well-being which were found to be
fully accounted for by the genetic model of the Five-Factor Model’s personality
domains.[30] However, these same study
designs allow for the examination of environment as well as genes. Adoption
studies also directly measure the strength of shared family effects. Adopted
siblings share only family environment. Most adoption studies indicate that by
adulthood the personalities of adopted siblings are little or no more similar
than random pairs of strangers. This would mean that shared family effects on
personality are zero by adulthood. As is the case with personality, non-shared
environmental effects are often found to out-weigh shared environmental
effects. That is, environmental effects that are typically thought to be
life-shaping (such as family life) may have less of an impact than non-shared
effects, which are harder to identify. One possible source of non-shared
effects is the environment of pre-natal development. Random variations in the
genetic program of development may be a substantial source of non-shared
environment. These results suggest that "nurture" may not be the
predominant factor in "environment". Environment and our situations,
do in fact impact our lives, but not the way in which we would typically react
to these environmental factors. We are preset with personality traits that are
the basis for how we would react to situations. An example would be how
extraverted prisoners become less happy than introverted prisoners and would
react to their incarceration more negatively due to their preset extraverted
personality (Kette,1991).[31]
Genomics
Nature and
Nurture:
In
the study of development, nature refers to the inherited (genetic)
characteristics and tendencies that influence development. Some inherited
characteristics appear in virtually everyone. For instance, almost all children
have the capacity to learn to walk, understand language, imitate others, use
simple tools, and draw inferences about how other people view the world. Thus
all children have a set of universal human genes that, when coupled with a
reasonable environment, permit them to develop as reasonably capable members of
the human species.
Other
kinds of genes create differences among people. Children’s stature, eye color,
and facial appearance are largely determined by genes. Children’s temperament—their characteristic ways of
responding to emotional events, novel stimuli, and their own impulses—seems to
be in part affected by their individual genetic makeup (Rothbart, Ahadi, &
Evans, 2000; D. C. Rowe, Almeida, & Jacobson, 1999). Similarly, being slow
or quick to learn from instruction and everyday experiences has some genetic
basis (Petrill & Wilkerson, 2000; Plomin, 1989).
Inherited
characteristics and tendencies are not always evident at birth. Many physical
features emerge gradually through the process of maturation, the genetically guided changes that occur
over the course of development. Environmental support, such as food, reasonably
safe and toxin-free surroundings, and responsive care from others, is necessary
for maturation to take place; nature never works alone.
Thus
nature’s partner is nurture, the environmental conditions that
influence development. Children’s experiences in the environment affect all
aspects of their being, from the health of their bodies to the curiosity of
their minds. Nurture affects children’s development through multiple channels:
physically through nutrition, activity, and stress; intellectually through
informal experiences and formal instruction; and socially through adult role
models and peer relationships. With good environmental support, children
thrive. Unfortunately, the conditions of nurture are not always nurturing. For
example, children who grow up in an abusive family must look outside the family
for stable, affectionate care.
Nurture strongly influences early human development
In the human development history, there did have existed a lot of theories which discuss how the nature or nurture factors have influenced the human development. Not only in the past, but nowadays, many people as well as countries also debate which factor has more impact on humans. In laymen's term, while nature means nature processes and some inheriting characteristics which can not be changed. Nurture means processes caused by surroundings and some characteristics which can be changed by outer environment. So in this essay, I will talk about the degree of nature and nurture influence on early human development.
Most obviously, early development is determined by nature. People's gender, the complexion, eyes and hairs' hue and general physiques all decided by human genes and growing cells, they decide human born as a person not a fish. All infants have abilities of seeing, smelling, hearing and tasting after born. For example, infants can tell differences tastes. They will show different responses when they taste different tastes, newborns prefer sweet taste, when they taste sour they will purse their lips and noses, bitter can make newborns open their mouths and stick out their tongues. Moreover, the fetus develops within the mother's body according to a fairly fixed time schedule, this is decided by genes.
While nature factors influence early human development, the nurture ones also have a lot to do with the development. They are as follows: First, as for motor behavior, all the children go through the same train of motor behavior in the same step. Rolling over, sitting without support, standing while holding on to furniture, crawling, and then walking. But children go through these in different rates. For example, according to Zelazo and Kolb's research, if a baby is held in an upright position with his/her feet touching a solid surface, his/her legs will make stepping movements that are similar to walking. The child who is asked to do this can grasp walking earlier than others. Secondly, the development of speaking also proves the nurture environment influence in the children's growth. Though all human beings learn to talk, children reared in an environment in which people talk to them and reward them for making speech like sounds talk earlier than children who do not receive this attention. Let's take some real cases in Kagan's research as an example. A child who was reared in middle-class American homes begins to speak at about one year of age. But the other one, who was brought up in San Marcos, had little verbal interaction with adults and does not utter his first words until he is two years old.
In conclusion, nature and nurture both have influences on early human development. Nature decides human's dispositions and nurture can change these personalities. Nature gives human born abilities and nurture help human to develop the abilities. Nature gives innate attributes to human and people are almost the same when they are born. Then nurture makes the innate attributes change and result in people having different lives. So nurture strongly influences early human development.
**************
Importance of Play in Early
Childhood
A child learns important lessons in life, like sharing,
fair play, interpersonal communication, respect, and getting along when he
plays with children of his own age group. This article gives a brief insight
into the importance of play in early childhood.
A child is born with an innate
talent and urge to learn new things through exploration and imitation. For
instance, when a toddler attains the walking age, he does not like to be
carried around. He insists on standing up and walking on his own tiny feet. As
the little one grows, the parents should instill new skills and also teach him
new things through play, as it becomes important for your child's intellectual,
emotional, and social development.
Through play, kids learn about themselves and the world around. They grow into active and mature adults, who behave better and are aware of other people's feelings. They develop negotiation, problem-solving, and interpersonal skills.
You could rightly say that play is an integral part of learning. In fact, it is a unique way of providing knowledge and values to our children and is an excellent mode for learning with fun and curiosity.
From the age of 18 months to three years, engaging your child in playful activities will help nurture his social, creative, linguistic communication skills and eventually, prepare him for school. When a child engages himself in hands-on playful activities at home, it helps to refine his listening and reasoning skills.
Through play, kids learn about themselves and the world around. They grow into active and mature adults, who behave better and are aware of other people's feelings. They develop negotiation, problem-solving, and interpersonal skills.
You could rightly say that play is an integral part of learning. In fact, it is a unique way of providing knowledge and values to our children and is an excellent mode for learning with fun and curiosity.
From the age of 18 months to three years, engaging your child in playful activities will help nurture his social, creative, linguistic communication skills and eventually, prepare him for school. When a child engages himself in hands-on playful activities at home, it helps to refine his listening and reasoning skills.
The Role of Play in Child
Development
► Beats Obesity: Today, obesity is one of the most common problems among
children. They are so glued to the television, or engaged in computer games
that they hardly venture out. Also, kids are very addicted to eating junk food.
Hence, it becomes really important that they invest some time playing outdoors
every day. By engaging your child in outdoor games and playful exercises, he
remains active and fit, thus curbing chances of childhood obesity.
► Better Brains: Introducing your child to mobile, video, or computer games at an early stage will not help in developing his physical and motor skills; instead running, or jumping would give you those results. For the brain to develop, he must be involved in outdoor and physical activities; only then will he learn about bonding, negotiating, sharing, and contributing in a group. This will not only promote moral values in your child, but will also help him to develop physically and psychologically.
► Good Sensory and Motor Skills: Indulging in outdoor games helps develop and coordinate the sensory and motor skills of a child. Your child can indulge in many multisensory activities that teach a child to understand and learn through touch, sight, and sound.
► Language Skills Improve: Singing along with your child, or engaging in activities involving rhyming words enhances his linguistic and vocabulary development. Experts opine that it is necessary to nurture verbal language skills in the early years of childhood rather than teaching word recognition and phonetics. By talking, singing songs, reciting poems, and storytelling, you enhance language skills in your child.
► Brings a Balance: An old English proverb goes like this -- All work and no play makes Jack a dull boy. Hence, parents should find time to balance playful activities in their child's life. Recall how you felt when you enjoyed climbing monkey bars, playing hopscotch, flying kites, building blocks, skipping, playing dressing up games or basketball, painting, or hide and seek. Playing should be all about having fun; introduce and incorporate these games in your child's schedule.
► Teaching Others: Have you ever noticed how little children teach other kids and get them involved in a particular game? Children, especially those around the age of three and above, begin to socialize with others of their own age group. This activity helps them grow, get involved, and teaches them to have a good time together.
► Math Genius: Play also helps to hone their numerical and mathematical skills. Children are able to grasp the concepts of math easily if started at an early stage. As a parent, it is your responsibility to develop this skill by engaging them in activities, such as counting the number of objects in a stack, teaching them relationships -- like short and long, big and small, more and less, etc.
► Overall Development: By playing, children are actually learning and preparing themselves for the challenges of adulthood. Your child would be emotionally fulfilled, relaxed, energized, and self-confident when he enjoys playing. His attention and concentration levels would also improve drastically. He would be eager to learn, explore, experiment, and imagine more. So, let your children play as it is essential for their optimal, emotional, intellectual, and creative development.
► Better Brains: Introducing your child to mobile, video, or computer games at an early stage will not help in developing his physical and motor skills; instead running, or jumping would give you those results. For the brain to develop, he must be involved in outdoor and physical activities; only then will he learn about bonding, negotiating, sharing, and contributing in a group. This will not only promote moral values in your child, but will also help him to develop physically and psychologically.
► Good Sensory and Motor Skills: Indulging in outdoor games helps develop and coordinate the sensory and motor skills of a child. Your child can indulge in many multisensory activities that teach a child to understand and learn through touch, sight, and sound.
► Language Skills Improve: Singing along with your child, or engaging in activities involving rhyming words enhances his linguistic and vocabulary development. Experts opine that it is necessary to nurture verbal language skills in the early years of childhood rather than teaching word recognition and phonetics. By talking, singing songs, reciting poems, and storytelling, you enhance language skills in your child.
► Brings a Balance: An old English proverb goes like this -- All work and no play makes Jack a dull boy. Hence, parents should find time to balance playful activities in their child's life. Recall how you felt when you enjoyed climbing monkey bars, playing hopscotch, flying kites, building blocks, skipping, playing dressing up games or basketball, painting, or hide and seek. Playing should be all about having fun; introduce and incorporate these games in your child's schedule.
► Teaching Others: Have you ever noticed how little children teach other kids and get them involved in a particular game? Children, especially those around the age of three and above, begin to socialize with others of their own age group. This activity helps them grow, get involved, and teaches them to have a good time together.
► Math Genius: Play also helps to hone their numerical and mathematical skills. Children are able to grasp the concepts of math easily if started at an early stage. As a parent, it is your responsibility to develop this skill by engaging them in activities, such as counting the number of objects in a stack, teaching them relationships -- like short and long, big and small, more and less, etc.
► Overall Development: By playing, children are actually learning and preparing themselves for the challenges of adulthood. Your child would be emotionally fulfilled, relaxed, energized, and self-confident when he enjoys playing. His attention and concentration levels would also improve drastically. He would be eager to learn, explore, experiment, and imagine more. So, let your children play as it is essential for their optimal, emotional, intellectual, and creative development.
Parents and preschool educators have an important responsibility to shape the minds of our future generation by using play as a mode to impart moral values and other fundamentals to our children, right from kindergarten. Through play, children not only learn many new skills, but also develop self-esteem. One thing worth mentioning here is, parents must learn to respect the interests of their children and let them take the lead while playing. Play helps in developing a healthy and long-lasting relationship between a child and his parents. It also helps the parents gain an insight into the thought process of their kid.
The Importance of
School Activities
It is imperative that students
have an assortment of school-related activities they can participate in. These
activities can range from activities during normal school hours to after-school
activities. No matter the time, these activities should be available to every
student, and it is encouraged that every student participate in at least one
activity.
Other People Are Reading
Exercise
One
of the primary reasons school activities are important is because it gives
students the exercise they might not normally receive. Of course, this type of
activity usually occurs after school. Most popularly, these types of activities
include major sports such as football, basketball, baseball, tennis, track and
field and soccer but also might include gymnasium games such as dodgeball,
wiffleball and other games. After-school programs such as the Boys and Girls
Club are ideal in a school district as this is the easiest way for students to
get their exercise.
Impression on Colleges
Activities
during and after school also make a good impression on colleges if students are
planning to pursue more education. Colleges look for students who do not just
go to school and go home after school is over. Instead, they look for students
who have good grades while at the same time participated in extracurricular
activities. These activities range from participating in clubs and sports to
volunteering after school at a recreation center or having a part-time job. If
a college sees you maintained good grades while participating in these
activities, it will be impressed.
Creativity
School
activities also allow students to be creative when they otherwise would not
have had the chance. Activities such as gifted-and-talented programs that allow
gifted students to participate in activities they otherwise would never have
experienced in the classroom are a great way to allow students to be creative.
Additionally, participating in clubs such as drama and chorus that appeal to
students' interest also allows them to expand their knowledge and be creative.
Expanding Interests
Students
also can have their interests expanded by participating in activities. These
activities could consist of anything, such as joining the Future Business
Leaders of America, the school's debate team and the chess team, to name a few.
By participating in these activities, a student might realize he is interested
in something he never knew he was interested in before. For example, if a
student has never acted before and joins a drama club, he may find out he
enjoys drama and will develop an interest in it. This could lead to bigger
things for the student, such as acting in college and beyond. These types of
scenarios apply to every activity and are important to have in every school.
Related Searches
Development of emotion in different stages:
What Are The Stages of Emotional Development in Children?
,
Teens face a roller coaster of emotions as
they mature.
From the first day an infant
enters the world he begins a journey of learning how to relate to other people
and deal with various emotions. Although children develop at different rates,
most parents want to know what to expect at different ages regarding emotional
and social development. That's why information on childhood development can be
helpful, such as the developmental theory of psychiatrist Erik Erikson, who
wrote "Eight Stages of Development" in 1956. Erikson's theory
contends that if children don't have their basic needs for security met early
in life, they can become distrusting and fearful.
The First Two Years: Learning to Trust
The
first two years of life make up the nurturing stage, during which a baby
develops a bond of security and trust. Socially, a baby begins to recognize his
mother's face at around 4 to 6 months of age. At 7 months, a baby learns his
first social games, such as "patty-cake," as well as how to give and
take items. After 9 months, a baby begins to distinguish strangers from
familiar faces. From age 1 to 2, babies express wider ranges of emotions. As
children begin speaking their first words, they typically initiate
communication and interaction with others.
The Defiant Twos: Developing the Will
Two-year-olds
are excited about a newly discovered sense of control. This stage is filled
with rapid mood shifts, stubbornness, tantrums and negativism of wanting to do
it "my way." It's also a time of clinging to parents, as many
toddlers go through what's known as separation anxiety. As they approach their
third birthday, they begin to socialize with their peers and identify with the
parent of the same sex.
Preschool Years: The Play Stage
The
preschool years (ages 3 to 5) are the "play age." In this stage,
children broaden their social life, playing with other children as they learn
to cooperate with peers. Preschoolers start becoming competitive and proud of
their achievements. Fantasy makes up much of their active play. However, it's
also a stage when they can develop several fears, such as being afraid of the
dark.
School Years: Competency
The
school-age period (ages 6 through 12) is a transition from fantasy and
free-form play to group games and sports. During the school-age stage, children
begin feeling guilty about wrong choices. They learn rules of how to relate to
others, as well as board game rules and rules of exclusion and inclusion. A
healthy school-age child should be able to express emotions. Around age 5,
children learn to share and keep secrets. Children ages 7 and 8 become more
aware of their private thoughts and feelings. They begin comparing themselves
with peers and are concerned about their abilities.
Adolescence: Searching for Identity
Adolescence
is usually a turbulent time when kids want to be free of their parents, yet are
still dependent on them. Approval from peers takes preference over pleasing
parents. It's a roller-coaster ride of emotions as they struggle to find their
own identity. While they sometimes act adult-like, at other times they resort
back to childhood. Although adolescence often begins in a stormy way,
relationships generally improve, with 14- to 16-year-olds trying to earn more
adult freedoms and responsibilities, such as driving. As they grow closer to
graduating from high school, they should become more socially adept and skilled
at resolving conflicts.
FREEDOM STRUGGLE IN ASSAM
Freedom
struggle in Assam has a unique character of its own. The people of Assam made
remarkable contributions at every stage of the freedom movement since 1920 to
1947. The visit of Mahatma Gandhi to the State in 1921 gave fillip to the
freedom movement which had already gathered momentum in both valleys of Assam.
Kanak Lata Barua, a girl of fifteen years became the first martyr of 1942
revolution. Others who lost their lives for the freedom of the country include
- Kushal Konwar, Kamala Miri, Maniram Dewan, Bhogeshwari Phukanani and many
others. Some of the notable freedom fighters ,who are still living, deserve
recollection by the nation in the 50 years of IndiaÕs Independence.
Pushpalata
Das
Pushpalata Das a revolutionary from her childhood, organised "Mrityu
Bahini" and "Santi Bahini" in Tezpur which pledged for supreme
sacrifice in fighting for India's Independence.
Smt.Das
was only six (1921) when she joined "Banar Sena" to popularise khadi
among the people and organised "Charkha Sangha". Even her father, a
Government employee, was compelled by his little daughter to wear only khadi.
Inspired by her mother ,she took the pledge for freedom and never looked back.
By coming into contact with several frontline leaders of freedom movement, she
converted herself to a pure Gandhian.
She was
selected by Gandhiji for Individual Satyagraha and remained in jail for two and
half months as an under trial. In 1942, she was arrested under Defence of India
Rule and was kept in solitary confinement for three and half years. As she fell
ill in the jail, the Government requested her to go on parole, but she refused.
When
offered "Tamra Patra" by the Government she refused to accept it and
wrote to the then Chief Minister of Assam, Shri Sarat Chandra Sinha, "With
all my profound sense of gratitude to the well wishes of the Government, I
would like to say humbly that, I did not take part in the India's freedom
movement with an intention to get something in return. That was complete by
itself with joy - so, I would not like to accept your honour... Let the beauty
of service remain animated". These words, perhaps, can rightly reflect her
feelings and thoughts of sacrifice. She was also a member of Rajya Sabha from
1951 to 1961.
Shri
Satis Chandra Kakati
Shri
Satis Chandra Kakati left school during his childhood in protest against the
Cunningham circular of the Assam Government in 1930 by which the students were
prohibited from participating in political activities associated with the
freedom movement. He joined the Civil Disobedience Movement of 1930, and was
arrested and sentenced to 3 months' rigorous imprisonment for picketing before
foreign clothes shops.
On
release, Shri Kakati resumed his education in the Kamrup Academy High School in
Guwahati, the first nationalist school in Assam for those students who had left
Government schools and participated in the Civil Disobedience Movement. Shri
Kakati graduated from Cotton College, Guwahati in 1936. He did not seek any
Government job but started his journalism career and became the editor of the
Assam Tribune. Simultaneously, he was also the editor of the Assam Weekly,
Assam Bani. In recognition of his services to journalism the Government of
India conferred Padma Shri on Shri Kakati in 1991.
Lakshyadhar
Choudhury
Lakshyadhar Choudhury (Born in 1915 at Rangmahal, North Guwahati, Assam) is in
his own words a pedestrian of the alleys of mind. To be specific, he roams the
inner world of those seemingly ordinary people who are otherwise
extraordinarily endowed with basic human values.
After
his graduation from Cotton College, he started teaching in a school at North
Guwahati.
It was
during those inspiring days of 1942 that he entered the real struggle of the
freedom movement in active association with stalwarts like Jayprakash Narayan,
Ram Manohar Lohia, Achyut Pattawardhan, Aruna Ashaf Ali and Acharya Narendra
Dev. After Independence, he joined the socialist forces of the country and
entered into regional politics. Later, he was also elected to the most
prestigious office of the president, Asom Sahitya Sabha, an outstanding State
literary organisation of Assam in 1992.
Navadwip
Ranjan Patgiri
Shri
Navadwip Ranjan Patgiri, at the age of eighteen, enrolled himself in a 'Santi
Sena' as envisaged by the Assam Provincial Congress Committee, and after
receiving training, he was appointed 'Adhi Nayak' by the Barpeta District
Congress Committee to impart Santi Sena Training in the Barnagar Tehsil area
within the jurisdiction of Sarbhog Police Station and raised a corps of fifteen
hundred strong well trained Santi Sena.
The
Santi Sena Bahini launched a vigorous picketing to stop local supply of
materials like bamboo, thatch, sand, gravel, along with vehicles, bullock carts
and labourers to check the progress of the war preparation of British
Government.
Ultimately, on August 26, 1942 the aerodrome under construction with all the
materials, the military barracks, newly constructed M.E.S. offices, the Sarbhog
Police Station building and the Inspection Banglow of Sarbhog town were torched
to ashes by the Santi Senas.
All
together 276 suspects were arrested in this connection and Navadwip Ranjan
Patgiri was convicted for five years rigorous imprisonment, along with two
others who were convicted for seven years, each, while the other four accused
were acquitted.
Shri
Patgiri got involved in several social organisations and presently, he is the
president of the Assam State Freedom Fighters' Association, since the last five
years.
Pabindra Nath Sarma
Pabindra Nath Sarma
Shri
Pabindra Nath Sarma, a true Gandhian, joined the Freedom Movement in 1932
leaving his law studies. He travelled extensively throughout the whole of Assam
propagating the messages of Gandhiji among the rural people. He organised a
volunteer force from villages of picketing in District Headquarters. He also
preached about ill effects of ganja, liquor and organised dharna in front of
the shops. In 1941, he was selected to offer individual Satyagraha and was the
only man to offer individual Satyagraha for the longest time. He played active
role in the Quit India Movement and suffered imprisonment. He was a
revolutionary and started a parallel government in Barkuriha Ganga Pukhuri High
School in Nalbari district and arrested Government servants for crimes against
the country. He along with the other youths destroyed official documents.
Later,
he was arrested under the Defence of India Rules and sent to Guwahati jail as
security prisoner without trial. In 1944, his mother died and he was released
but was interned at Guwahati for one year. A true Gandhian, Shri Sarmah wrote
several books on Gandhiji. He was offered Tamra Patra by the Government.
Bipin
Pal Das
Shri
Bipin Pal Das, jumped into Quit India Movement of 1942. He concentrated on
spreading the message of complete Non-Cooperation with the British War efforts
among the rural masses in Kamrup district, Assam. This campaign was quite
successful and a large number of rural youths came forward to carry on the
agitation. In the course of this campaign, Shri Das along with four local youth
leaders was arrested in 1942.
Shri Das
was released from the Guwahati jail after an imprisonment of three months.
After being released from the jail Shri Das engaged himself in underground
works. In 1946,he joined the Congress Socialist Party.
In March
1970, he was selected to Rajya Sabha as an independent candidate, and joined
the Congress Party in January 1971. In the same year, Shri Das was asked by the
then Prime Minister Smt.Indira Gandhi to join the Indian Delegation to the
U.N.O. In 1974, Shri Das was appointed Deputy Minister of the Ministry of
External Affairs.He was re-elected to Rajya Sabha in 1976 as a Congress
candidate for the second term.
With the
sincere efforts of the above mentioned distinguished leaders and many others,
Assam played a pivotal role in India's freedom struggle.
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The early history of Assam is lost in the mists of
antiquity, though there are several references to the in
the Mahabharata, the Puranas, and the Tantras. In these sacred
scriptures the area was known as Kamrupa; it encompassed theBrahmaputra valley, Bhutan, Cooch
Behar (West Bengal), and the Rangpur region (now in
Bangladesh). The legendary king Narakasura, whose son Bhagadatta fought
valiantly in the Mahabharata war, ruled Kamrupa from his capital
atPragjyotishpura (modern Guwahati). The site has a famous temple
dedicated to theTantric goddess Kamakhya.
Sri Krishna frequently appears in the legends and mythology of Assam. It was Krishna who fought against king Bhismaka of Kundil (now Sadia) in his bid to marryBhismaka's daughter Rukmini. King Banasura of Sonitpur (now Tezpur) fought against Sri Krishna, when Banasura's daughter Usha secretly entered into wedlock with Aniruddha, Krishna’s grandson. Historical evidences prove that the first king who ruled over Kamrupa was PushyaVarman (350 - 380 AD), who was a contemporary of Samudragupta (350 - 375 AD). He took on the title of Maharajadhiraj and ensured steps to establish Kamrupa as a prosperous state. His descendant Mahendra Varman waged a successful war against the Guptas and also performed the Ashwamedha Yagna (horse sacrifice). The glory of Varman dynasty reached its zenith during the rule of Bhaskar Varman (594 - 650 AD), who was a contemporary of Harshavardhan (606 - 648 AD).The latter had invited and honoured Bhaskar Varman at a conference held at Kannauj. |
 The mighty Brahmaputra- Assam's lifeline  The famous Kamakhya temple  Ruins of Banasur's capital Sonitpur (modern Tezpur) |
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In 640 AD, the famous Chinese
pilgrim-scholar Hiuen-Tsang, reported that he had attended the court of
king Bhaskar Barman. Several stone and copper inscriptions dating from
the7th to the 12th centuries indicate a succession of Hindu dynasties.
The Salasthambha dynasty was the next to
rule Assam. The first to rule was a chieftain called Salastambha. Shri
Harshadeva (725 - 750 AD) proved to be an excellent ruler. The last king
of this dynasty, Tyaga Singha (970 - 990 AD), was succeeded by
Brahmapala (990 - 1010 AD), who founded a new dynasty- that of
thePalas. Jayapala (1120 - 1138 AD) was the last ruler of this
dynasty.
The first Islamic invasion (between 1206 - 1226 AD) of Kamrupa took place during the reign of a king called Prithu who was killed in a battle with Illtutmish's sonNasiruddin in 1228 AD. During the second invasion by Ikhtiyaruddin Yuzbak (aliasTughril Khan), about 1257 AD, the king of Kamrupa Saindhya (1250 - 1270 AD) transferred the capital Kamrup Nagar to Kamatapur in the west. After the invasion of the Mughals in the 15th century many Muslims settled in Assam and thus became the first Muslim settlers of this region. |
 Hiuen Tsang |
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During the early part of the 13th century, when
the Ahoms (who originated from Ruili in the Yunan province of
China, very close to the border with Myanmar). Established their rule over
Assam with the capital at Sibsagar, the area between
the Sovansiriand the Disang rivers were under the control of
the Chutias. According to popular Chutia legends,
the Chutia king Birpal established his rule at Sadia in
1189 AD. He was succeeded by ten kings of whom the eighth
king Dhirnarayan orDharmadhwajpal, abdicated in favour of his
son-in-law Nitai or Nityapal. Nityapal's failure to rule
efficiently gave an opportunity to the Ahom king Suhungmung annexed
it to the Ahom kingdom.
The Bhuyans were petty chiefs whose principalities were located towards the east of Kamrup-Kamata area. Baro (twelve) refers to the twelve chieftains who, even though were not kings, established small kingdoms on the basis of their strength. They took up arms against the Ahoms. But the Ahom king Pratap Singha crushed the uprising of the Baro Bhuyans. Bishwa Singha (1515 - 1540 AD) laid the foundation of the Koch dominion in the early part of the 16th century and established his capital in Cooch-Bihar (modern W.Bengal). He was succeeded by his son Malladeva who assumed the name ofNaranarayana. His brother Sukladhvaj, who became the commander-in-chief, was known as 'Chilarai' or 'Hawk King' due to his ability to attack the enemy swiftly like aChila (hawk/ Kite). Naranarayan's rule was the most glorious period of Koch kingdom. He defeated the Ahoms in 1562 AD, annexed the kingdoms of Kachar, Manipur, Tripura, Jayantia and Srihatta (modern Sylhet in Bangladesh),thus extending the boundaries of his domains. Chilarai also fought the Nawab of Gour, but succumbed to an attack of smallpox. Naranarayan died in 1584 AD after a reign of nearly fifty years (1540 - 1584 AD). It was during his reign that the Assamese literature and culture flourished. After his the kingdom weakened steadily and until 1615 AD when it was annexed to the Mughal Empire. |
 Architecture of the Ahoms  Rang Ghar in Sibsagar - Assam's ancient capital |
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The 13th century saw the rise of the Kacharis, one
of the ancient races of Assam. The most famous and powerful kings of the
Kachari Kingdom
were Jashanarayan,Pratapnarayan, Jamradwaj and Govindchandra.
The Kacharis claim descent from Ghatotkacha, the son
of Bhima (the second Pandava). Towards the end of the 15th century
the Kacharis were forced to surrender their
capital Hidimbapur (now Dimapur, in Nagaland) and the adjoining
areas adjoining it to the Ahoms.
The Jaintias was a matriarchal race which had established their kingdom in and around Jayantia hills. Dhanamanik and Jashamanik were the powerful kings of the Jayantia Kingdom. They forged matrimonial relations with the Ahoms and allied with them during the Mughal invasion. Bijaynarayan was the last Jayantia ruler after whom the kingdom passed into the hands of the British along with the Ahom kingdom. The 13th century witnessed the advent of the Ahoms, led by their first king Sukafawho was the prince of Monlung (Upper Burma, modern Myanmar). In 1228 AD the prince together with a band of followers entered the boundaries of Assam through the Naga Kingdom. He set up his capital at Charaideo in 1253 AD. After Sukafa died in 1268 AD, his son Suseupha (1268 - 1281 AD) became king and gradually extended the boundaries of the Ahom kingdom. In 1397 AD Sudangpha (1397 - 1407 AD) was crowned as king. His accession marks the first stage in the growth of Brahmanical influence among the Ahoms.During this period there was a skirmish between Ahomsand Tipams, but it ended peacefully. during his reign but was later on peacefully concluded. |
 A specimen of Assam's ancient sculpture |
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King Suhungmung's reign (1497 - 1539 AD) is
considered to be the most memorable period of the Ahom rule. He assumed the
Hindu name Swarganarayan (literary king in heaven).
He annexed
the Chutia and Kachari kingdoms to his territory. He
created various classes of ministers: Borgohain, Buragohain and Borpatra
Gohain. It was during his reign that the first ever census was conducted.
During this period, the Mughals invaded thrice but were unable to win. The
invasions were an eye opener for the Ahoms – they learnt the use of guns
which was a deviation from the traditional weapons like bows, arrows and
swords. Suhungmung died in 1539 AD as the result of a conspiracy hatched by
his son Suklengmung (1539 - 1552 AD).
Susengpha, a descendant of Suklengmung, ascended the
throne in 1603 AD. He took on the name of Pratap Singha. It was during
his time that war between Ahoms and Mughals reached its peak. But
Pratap Singha fought valiantly and further extended the boundaries
of his dominions.
Supungmung (alias Chakradhvaj Singha, 1663 – 1669
AD) was an independent minded king who combatted the Mughals again. In August
1667 AD, under the excellent leadership of Lachit Barphukan (son
of Momai Tamuli Borbarua, a man of humble origins who had risen to be
the Governor of upper Assam as well as the Commander-in-Chief of
the Ahom army) a brave warrior and an able general,
theAhoms were able to wrest Guwahati and Pandu from
Mughal control. An enraged dispatched a huge force under Ram Mohan
Singh to tackle the Ahoms. In 1671 AD afierce battle took place between
the Ahoms and the Mughals at Saraighat. The Mughals
were inflicted a crushing defeat. As a result of this battle, the Manas river
became the line of demarcation line between the Ahom and Mughal territories.
This arrangement continued until the British occupation in 1826 AD.
The kingdom of the Ahom reached its zenith
under Rudra Singha (reined between 1696 - 1714 AD), the renowned
military strategist and patron of the buranji, or Ahom
chronicles. Rudra Singha established a flourishing trade with Tibet
and built the city of Rangpur.
During the decades that followed,
the Ahom rulers were gradually torn asunder by feuds and factions,
conspiracies and intrigues. Their mighty kingdom began to totter.
In 1817 AD, the Burmese took advantage of this political instability and overran the Brahmaputra Valley. The Burmese had actually been invited by Barphukan BadanChandra a general in lower (western) Assam. He was the son-in-law of Purnananda Burhagohain a powerful minister under the king, who was based in upper (eastern) Assam. The Burmese also unleashed a series of genocides, in which the masses were indiscriminately killed. Fearing intrusions into their own territories, the British drove ousted the Burmese from the Brahmaputra Valley shortly afterwards. By means of the Treaty of Yandaboo between the British East India Company and theBurmese King of Ava, signed on February 24, 1826 AD, between the Burmese and the British, annexed the Ahom kingdom in 1826 AD. In 1838 AD, all of northeast India became part of the Bengal Presidency of British India.
The astute businessmen that the British were they
discovered that the region of Assam was a virtual goldmine for them. Hence
they embarked on a process of development and progress. The British
dismantled the Ahom administrative structure, made Bengali the official
language, and recruited Bengali Hindus for various posts instead of the local
populace. Coal, limestone, and iron mines were opened and the government
offered incentives to European entrepreneurs to start plantations for the
production of tea, rubber, chinchona (source of quinine) hemp and jute. The
British brought in contract labour from Bihar, Orissa and Andhra Pradesh. By
the turn of the century, one and a half million of such coolies were employed
on 700 plantations producing 145 million pounds of tea annually.
The first revolt against the British was led
by Dhananjay Borgohain and Gunadhar Konwar in 1828
AD. Gunadhar Konwar was sentenced to seven years in prison
andDhananjay Borgohain, having been sentenced to death fled to the Matak
kingdom. There he secretly joined hands with his own
sons Harakanta and Haranath, son-in-law Jeuram Dulia
Baruah, and many others and made plans to attack Rangpur. But before they
were betrayed by one of their associates, Sadiya Khowa Gohain. Some
members of the gang were hanged and others expelled from country. Thereafter,
the British control over Assam was strengthened. Besides Assam, they
annexedKhamtis, Singhpho, Matak, Kachari, Naga, Garo, Lushai and
other hilly kingdoms.
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More was yet to follow. The famous Sepoy
Mutiny of 1857 AD, found an echo in Assam under the leadership
of Maniram Dewan and Piyoli Barua, who were eventually hanged
in 1858 AD.
Meanwhile, the British had sought to clamp to
linguistic freedom of the natives by introducing Bengali as the medium of
instruction in 1837 AD. However it ended in a fiasco because owing to the
efforts of the American Baptist Missionaries, and noted intellectuals of
the day like Anandaram Dhekial Phukan, Hem Chandra Baruah,
and Gunabhiram Baruah, Assamese was reinstated as the medium of
instruction in 1873 AD.
In 1874 AD, Assam was separated from Bengal, and made into a separate province, with its capital in Shillong.
The Assamese intellectuals realized that there ought to
be an element of cohesiveness in the social fabric of the state, so that the
fight for liberty could percolate to every strata of the society. In 1884
AD Jagannath Baruah formed such an organisation at Jorhat and named
it Sarbajanik Sabha.
In 1905, the British Viceroy of India, Lord
Curzon, again got Assam amalgamated with East Bengal following the partition
of Bengal into the west and the east. The year 1912 is of great significance,
in Assamese history, because of three landmark events that took place during
the year: The first was Gandhi’s visit to Assam, secondly, strikes
by Assam Bengal train service and steamer companies, plunged the region into
chaos and last but not the least, after a gap of 63 years, Assam became a
separate province under a governor, thus paving the way for a dual
administration, which lasted till 1936.
In 1916, the Assam Chhatra Sanmilan and in
1917 Assam Sahitya Sabha were formed. This was followed by the
formation of Assam Association by Manik Chandra Baruah. In
1919, Assam Association joined the Assam branch of Indian National
Congress.
In 1919 - 20 Assam too plunged into
the non-cooperation movement launched by Gandhi. Assam's
participation in the mainstream of the country’s politics had begun way back
in 1886 AD at the second session of Indian National Congress held
at Calcutta, where Debi Chandra Baruah, Gopinath
Bordoloi, Kamini Kumar Chandra, Satyanath Baruah and Joy
Gobindasom had represented Assam.
Assam joined the rest of India in the Civil
Disobedience Movement of 1930 launched by Gandhi. In 1935 self-goverance
in Assam was introduced. Assam plunged into the Quit India Movement in 1942
which was also popularly known as Peoples' Revolution.
Early in the 20th century, the government of India,
made vast tracts of land in Assam available to predominantly Muslim farmers
from the provinces of East Bengal for settlement and cultivation. Nepalis
were employed as herders and encouraged to colonize new lands. The subsequent
immigration of Marwaris and Sikhs, boosted capital development
in Assam and strengthened its ties with the rest of India.
In the post-independence era, the Assamese won control
of their state assembly and launched a campaign to reassert the preeminence
of Assamese culture in the region and improve employment opportunities for
native Assamese. This led to the alienation of some tribal districts.
Moreover many tribal districts were demanding independence from India. In a
bid to placate the various tribes, the Indian Government partitioned the
former undivided Assam into the tribal states
of Nagaland, Mizoram, Meghalaya,Manipur and Arunachal
Pradesh over the next few decades.
It would be interesting to note that during the latter half of the 16th century, the revered saint-teacher of Assam, Shankara Deva, inspired a popular Vaishnavite movement that sought to reform the esoteric practices of Tantric Hinduism and to limit the prerogatives of Brahmins attached to the Ahom court. The Ahoms themselves patronized an extensive network of Vaishnavite monasteries (satras), whose monks played a key role in the reclamation of wastelands for rice cultivation throughout the Brahmaputra Valley. Because of its rejection of caste related privilege, ShankaraDeva's Vaishnavism held immense appeal for the local tribals.Consequently within a short period of time it became a highly popular cult. |
 Hemchandra Barua – one of the greatest intellectuals of Assam |
******************
Directive
Principles in India:
The Directive Principles of State
Policy are guidelines to the central
and state governments of India, to be kept in mind while framing laws and
policies. These provisions, contained in Part IV of theConstitution of India, are not enforceable by any court, but the principles laid down
therein are considered fundamental in the governance of the country, making it
the duty of the State[1] to apply these principles in
making laws to establish a just society in the country.
The
concept of Directive Principles of State Policy was borrowed from the Irish Constitution. The makers of the Constitution of India were influenced by the Irish
nationalist movement. Hence, the Directive Principles of the Indian constitution have
been greatly influenced by the Directive Principles of State Policy.[2] The idea of such policies
"can be traced to the Declaration of the Rights of Man proclaimed byRevolutionary France and the Declaration of
Independence by the American Colonies."[3] The Indian constitution was
also influenced by the United Nations Universal Declaration of Human Rights.
In
1919, the Rowlatt Acts gave extensive powers to the
British government and police, and allowed indefinite arrest and detention of
individuals, warrant-less searches and seizures, restrictions on public
gatherings, and intensive censorship of media and publications. The public
opposition to this act eventually led to mass campaigns of non-violent civil disobedience throughout the country,
demanding guaranteed civil freedoms, and limitations on government power.
Indians, who were seeking independence and their own government, were
particularly influenced by the independence of Ireland and the development of
the Irish constitution. Also, the directive principles of state policy in the
Irish Constitution were looked upon by the people of India as an inspiration
for the independent India's government to comprehensively tackle complex social
and economic challenges across a vast, diverse nation and population.
In
1928, the Nehru Commission composing of representatives
of Indian political parties proposed constitutional reforms for India that
apart from calling for dominion status for India and
elections under universal suffrage, would guarantee rights deemed fundamental,
representation for religious and ethnic minorities, and limit the powers of the
government. In 1931, the Indian National Congress (the largest Indian political
party of the time) adopted resolutions committing itself to the defense of
fundamental civil rights, as well as socio-economic rights such as the minimum wage and the abolition of untouchability and serfdom.[4] Committing themselves tosocialism in 1936, the Congress leaders
took examples from the constitution of the erstwhile USSR, which inspired the
fundamental duties of citizens as a means of collective patriotic responsibility
for national interests and challenges.
When
India obtained independence on 15 August 1947, the task of developing a
constitution for the nation was undertaken by theConstituent Assembly of India, composing of elected representatives under the
presidency of Dr.
Rajendra Prasad. While members of Congress composed of a large majority, Congress
leaders appointed persons from diverse political backgrounds to
responsibilities of developing the constitution and national laws.[5] Notably, Bhimrao Ramji Ambedkar became the chairperson of the
drafting committee, while Jawaharlal Nehru and Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel became chairpersons of
committees and sub-committees responsible for different subjects. A notable
development during that period having significant effect on the Indian
constitution took place on 10 December 1948 when the United Nations General Assembly adopted the Universal Declaration of Human Rights and called upon all member
states to adopt these rights in their respective constitutions.
Both
the Fundamental Rights and the Directive Principles of State Policy were
included in the I Draft Constitution (February 1948), the II Draft Constitution
(17 October 1948) and the III and final Draft Constitution (26 November 1949),
being prepared by the Drafting Committee.
DPSPs
aim to create social and economic conditions under which the citizens can lead
a good life. They also aim to establish social and economic democracy through a welfare state. They act as a check on the government, theorized as a yardstick in
the hands of the people to measure the performance of the government and vote
it out of power if it does not fulfill the promises made during theelections. The Directive Principles
are non-justiciable rights of the people. Article 31-C,
inserted by the 25th Amendment Act of 1971 seeks to upgrade the Directive Principles.[6] If laws are made to give
effect to the Directive Principles over Fundamental Rights, they shall not be
invalid on the grounds that they take away the Fundamental Rights. In case of a
conflict between Fundamental Rights and DPSP's, if the DPSP aims at promoting
larger interest of the society, the courts shall have to uphold the case in
favour of the DPSP.[7]The Directive Principles,
though not justiciable, are fundamental in the governance of the country. It
shall be the duty of the State[1] to apply these principles in
making laws.[8] Besides, all executive agencies should also be guided by
these principles. Even the judiciaryhas to keep them in mind in
deciding cases.[9][10]
The
directive principles ensure that the State[1] shall strive to promote the welfare of the people by promoting a social order
in whichsocial, economic and political justice is
informed in all institutions of life. Also, the State shall work towards
reducing economic
inequality as well as inequalities in status
and opportunities, not only among individuals, but also among groups of people
residing in different areas or engaged in different vocations.[11] The State shall aim for
securing right to an adequate means of livelihood for all citizens, both men
and women as well as equal pay for equal work for both men and women. The
State should work to prevent concentration of wealth and means of production in
a few hands, and try to ensure that ownership and control of the material
resources is distributed to best serve the common good. Child abuse and exploitation of workers
should be prevented. Children should be allowed to develop in a healthy manner
and should be protected against exploitation and against moral and material
abandonment.[12] The State shall provide free legal aid to ensure that equal
opportunities for securing justice is ensured to all, and is not denied by
reason of economic or other disabilities.[13] The State shall also work for
organisation of village panchayats and help enable them to
function as units of self-government.[14] The State shall endeavour to
provide the right to work, to
education and to public assistance in
cases ofunemployment, old age, sickness and
disablement, within the limits of economic capacity,[15] as well as provide for just
and humane conditions of work and maternity relief.[16]
The
State should also ensure living wage and proper working conditions for workers, with full
enjoyment of leisure and social and cultural activities. Also, the promotion of cottage industries in rural areas is one of the
obligations of the State.[17] The State shall take steps to
promote their participation in management of industrial undertakings.[18]
Also,
the State shall endeavour to secure a uniform
civil code for all citizens,[19] and provide free and
compulsory education to all children till they attain the age of 14 years.[20] This directive regarding
education of children was added by the 86th Amendment Act, 2002.[21] It should and work for the
economic and educational upliftment of scheduled castes, scheduled tribes and other weaker sections of the society.[22]
The
directive principles commit the State to raise the level of nutrition and the
standard of living and to improve public health, particularly by prohibiting
intoxicating drinks and drugs injurious to health except for medicinal
purposes.[23] It should also organise
agriculture and animal husbandry on modern and scientific lines by improving
breeds and prohibiting slaughter of cows, calves, other milch and draught cattle[24][25] It should protect and improve
the environment and safeguard the forests and wild life of the country.[26] This directive, regarding
protection of forests and wildlife was added by the 42nd Amendment Act, 1976.[27]
Protection
of monuments, places and objects of historic and artistic interest and national
importance against destruction and damage,[28] and separation of judiciary
from executive in public services[29] are also the obligations of
the State as laid down in the directive principles. Finally, the directive
principles, in Article 51 ensure that the State shall strive for the promotion
and maintenance of international peace and security, just and honourable
relations between nations, respect for international law and treaty
obligations, as well as settlement of international disputes by arbitration.[30]
The
State has made and is making many efforts to implement the Directive Principles. The Programme
of Universalisation of Elementary Education and the five-year plans has been accorded the highest
priority in order to provide free education to all children up to the age
of 14 years. The 86th constitutional amendment of 2002 inserted a new article,
Article 21-A, into the Constitution, that seeks to provide free and compulsory
education to all children aged 6 to 14 years.[21] Welfare schemes for the
weaker sections are being implemented both by the Central and State governments.
These include programmes such as boys' and girls' hostels for scheduled castes' or scheduled tribes' students.[31] The year 1990-1991 was
declared as the "Year of Social Justice" in the memory of B.R. Ambedkar.[32] The government provides free
textbooks to students belonging to scheduled castes or scheduled tribes
pursuing medicine and engineering courses. During 2002-2003, a sum of Rs. 4.77 crore was released for this
purpose.[33] In order that scheduled
castes and scheduled tribes are protected from atrocities, the Government
enacted the The Prevention of Atrocities
Act, which
provided severe punishments for such atrocities.[34]
Several
Land Reform Acts were enacted to provide ownership rights to poor farmers.[35] Up to September 2001, more
than 20,000,000 acres (80,000 km²) of land had been distributed to
scheduled castes, scheduled tribes and the landless poor. The thrust of banking
policy in India has been to improve banking facilities in the rural areas.[36] The Minimum Wages Act of 1948 empowers government
to fix minimum wages for employees engaged in various employments.[37] The Consumer Protection Act of 1986 provides for the better
protection of consumers. The act is intended to provide simple, speedy and
inexpensive redressal to the consumers' grievances, award relief and
compensation wherever appropriate to the consumer.[citation needed] The Equal Remuneration Act of 1976, provides for equal
pay for equal work for both men and women.[38] The Sampoorna Grameen Rozgar
Yojana was launched in 2001 to
attain the objective of gainful employment for the rural poor. The programme
was implemented through the Panchayati Raj institutions.[39]
Panchayati
Raj now covers almost all states and Union territories.[40] One-third of the total number
of seats have been reserved for women in Panchayats at every level; in the case
of Bihar, half the seats have been reserved for women.[41][42] Legal aid at the expense of
the State has been made compulsory in all cases pertaining to criminal law, if
the accused is too poor to engage a lawyer.[13]Judiciary has been separated from the
executive in all the states and Union territories except Jammu and Kashmir and Nagaland.[29][33]
India's
Foreign Policy has also to some degree been influenced by the DPSPs. India has
in the past condemned all acts of aggressionand has also supported the United Nations’ peace-keeping activities.
By 2004, the Indian Army had participated in 37 UN
peace-keeping operations. India played a key role in the passing of a UN
resolution in 2003, which envisaged better cooperation between theSecurity Council and the troop-contributing
countries.[43] India has also been in favour
of nuclear disarmament.[33]
Changes
in Directive Principles require a Constitutional amendment which has to be passed by a
special majority of both houses of theParliament. This means that an
amendment requires the approval of two-thirds of the members present and
voting. However, the number of members voting should not be less than the simple majority of the house — whether the Lok Sabha or Rajya Sabha.
Article 31-C, inserted into the Directive
Principles of State Policy by the 25th Amendment Act of 1971 seeks to upgrade
the DPSPs.[44] If laws are made to give effect to the Directive Principles over
Fundamental Rights, they shall not be invalid on the grounds that they take
away the Fundamental Rights.[7]
Article 45, which ensures Provision for free and compulsory education for children,[20] was added by the 86th Amendment Act, 2002.[21]
Article 48-A, which ensures Protection and improvement of environment and safeguarding of
forests and wild life,[26] was added by the 42nd Amendment Act, 1976.[27]
*********************
The economy of India is one of the fastest growing
economies in the world. Since its independence in the year 1947, a number of
economic policies have been taken which have led to the gradual economic
development of the country. On a broader scale, India economic reform has been
a blend of both social democratic and liberalization policies.
Economic reforms during the post independence
period
The post independence period of India was marked by economic policies which tried to make the country self sufficient. Under the economic reform, stress was given more to development of defense, infrastructure and agricultural sectors. Government companies were set up and investment was done more on the public sector. This was made to make the base of the country stronger. To strengthen the infrastructure, new roads, rail lines, bridges, dams and lots more were constructed.
During the Five Years Plans initiated in the 1950s, the economic reforms of India somewhat followed the democratic socialist principle with more emphasis on the growth of the public and rural sector. Most of the policies were meant towards the increase of exports compared to imports, central planning, business regulation and also intervention of the state in the finance and labor markets. In the mid 50's huge scale nationalization was done to industries like mining, telecommunications, electricity and so on.
Economic Reforms during 1960s and 1980s
During the mid 1960's effort was made to make India self sufficient and also increase the production and export of the food grains. To make the plan a success, huge scale agricultural development was undertaken. The government initiated the ‘Green Revolution’ movement and stressed on better agricultural yield through the use of fertilizers, improved seed and lots more. New irrigation projects were undertaken and the rural banks were also set up to provide financial support to the farmers.
The first step towards liberalization of the economy was taken up by Rajiv Gandhi. After he became the Prime Minister, a number of restrictions on various sectors were eased, control on pricing was removed, and stress was given on increased growth rate and so on.
Economic Reforms during 1990s to the present times
Due to the fall of the Soviet Union and the problems in balance of payment accounts, the country faced economic crisis and the IMF asked for the bailout loan. To get out of the situation, the then Finance Minister, Manmohan Singh initiated the economic liberation reform in the year 1991. This is considered to be one of the milestones in India economic reform as it changed the market and financial scenario of the country. Under the liberalization program, foreign direct investment was encouraged, public monopolies were stopped, and service and tertiary sectors were developed.
Since the initiation of the liberalization plan in the 1990s, the economic reforms have put emphasis on the open market economic policies. Foreign investments have come in various sectors and there has been a good growth in the standard of living, per capital income and Gross Domestic Product.
Due to the global meltdown, the economy of India suffered as well. However, unlike other countries, India sustained the shock as an important part of its financial and banking sector is still under government regulation. Nevertheless, to cope with the present situation, the Indian government has taken a number of decisions like strengthening the banking and tertiary sectors, increasing the quantity of exports and lots more.
The post independence period of India was marked by economic policies which tried to make the country self sufficient. Under the economic reform, stress was given more to development of defense, infrastructure and agricultural sectors. Government companies were set up and investment was done more on the public sector. This was made to make the base of the country stronger. To strengthen the infrastructure, new roads, rail lines, bridges, dams and lots more were constructed.
During the Five Years Plans initiated in the 1950s, the economic reforms of India somewhat followed the democratic socialist principle with more emphasis on the growth of the public and rural sector. Most of the policies were meant towards the increase of exports compared to imports, central planning, business regulation and also intervention of the state in the finance and labor markets. In the mid 50's huge scale nationalization was done to industries like mining, telecommunications, electricity and so on.
Economic Reforms during 1960s and 1980s
During the mid 1960's effort was made to make India self sufficient and also increase the production and export of the food grains. To make the plan a success, huge scale agricultural development was undertaken. The government initiated the ‘Green Revolution’ movement and stressed on better agricultural yield through the use of fertilizers, improved seed and lots more. New irrigation projects were undertaken and the rural banks were also set up to provide financial support to the farmers.
The first step towards liberalization of the economy was taken up by Rajiv Gandhi. After he became the Prime Minister, a number of restrictions on various sectors were eased, control on pricing was removed, and stress was given on increased growth rate and so on.
Economic Reforms during 1990s to the present times
Due to the fall of the Soviet Union and the problems in balance of payment accounts, the country faced economic crisis and the IMF asked for the bailout loan. To get out of the situation, the then Finance Minister, Manmohan Singh initiated the economic liberation reform in the year 1991. This is considered to be one of the milestones in India economic reform as it changed the market and financial scenario of the country. Under the liberalization program, foreign direct investment was encouraged, public monopolies were stopped, and service and tertiary sectors were developed.
Since the initiation of the liberalization plan in the 1990s, the economic reforms have put emphasis on the open market economic policies. Foreign investments have come in various sectors and there has been a good growth in the standard of living, per capital income and Gross Domestic Product.
Due to the global meltdown, the economy of India suffered as well. However, unlike other countries, India sustained the shock as an important part of its financial and banking sector is still under government regulation. Nevertheless, to cope with the present situation, the Indian government has taken a number of decisions like strengthening the banking and tertiary sectors, increasing the quantity of exports and lots more.
*******************************
Rabindranath Tagore's role in the
innovation of educational ideas has been eclipsed by his fame as a poet. He was
a pioneer in the field of education. For the last forty years of his life he
was content to be a schoolmaster in humble rural surroundings, even when he had
achieved fame such as no Indian had known before. He was one of the first, in
India, to think out for himself and put in practice principles of education
which have now become commonplace of educational theory, if not yet of
practice.
Today we all know that what the child
imbibes at home and in school is far more important than what he studies at
college, that the teaching is more easily and naturally communicated through
the child's mother-tongue than through an alien medium, that learning through
activity is more real than through the written word, that wholesome education
consists in training of all the senses along with the mind instead of cramming
the brain with memorized knowledge, that culture is something much more than
academic knowledge. But few of Rabindranath's countrymen took notice of him
when he made his first experiments in education in 1901 with less than half a
dozen pupils. A poet's whim, thought most of them. Even today few of his
countrymen understand the significance of these principles in their
national life. The schoolmaster is still the most neglected member of our
community, despite the fact that Rabindranath attached more merit to what he taught
to children in his school than to the Hibbert lectures he delivered before the
distinguished audience at Oxfoard.
Mahatma Gandhi adopted the scheme of
teaching through crafts many years after Rabindranath had worked it out at
Santiniketan. In fact the Mahatma imported his first teachers for his basic
School from Santiniketan.
If Rabindranath had done nothing else, what he did at Santiniketan and Sriniketan would be sufficient to rank him as one of the India's greatest nation-builders.
If Rabindranath had done nothing else, what he did at Santiniketan and Sriniketan would be sufficient to rank him as one of the India's greatest nation-builders.
With the years, Rabindranath had won
the world and the world in turn had won him. He sought his home everywhere in
the world and would bring the world to his home. And so the little school for
children at Santiniketan became a world university, Visva-Bharati, a centre for
Indian Culture, a seminary for Eastern Studies and a meeting-place of the East
and West. The poet selected for its motto an ancient Sanskrit verse, Yatra
visvam bhavatieka nidam, which means, "Where the whole world meets in
a single nest."
"Visva-Bharati", he declared,
" represents India where she has her wealth of mind which is for
all. Visva-Bharati acknowledges India's obligation to offer to others the
hospitality of her best culture and India's right to accept from others their
best."
In 1940 a year before he died, he put a
letter in Gandhi's hand,
"Visva-Bharati is like a vessel which is carrying the cargo of my life's best treasure , and I hope it may claim special care from my countrymen for its preservation."
"Visva-Bharati is like a vessel which is carrying the cargo of my life's best treasure , and I hope it may claim special care from my countrymen for its preservation."
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and answers related to "what similaritis of educational ideas between
tagore and rousseau?"
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Jean-Jacques Rousseau remains an important figure in the
history of philosophy, both because of his contributions to political
philosophy and moral psychology and because of his influence on later
thinkers. Rousseau's own view of philosophy and philosophers was firmly
negative, seeing philosophers ...
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Introduction:
Rousseau is one of the famous Western philosophers of the eighteenth century. During
the seventeenth and the eighteenth centuries reason ruled as a god , and people like Voltaire revolted against it. Rousseau also led the revolt against reason and he made nature the sole authority over human affairs.
Rousseau saw a great divide between the society and the nature and so led the second revolt
which was called as the naturalistic movement. He had a great emotion and sympathy for the
common man. (Khalid, 1998).
Jean- Jacques Rousseau was born on 28 June 1712 in the Geneva, Switzerland in the
house of a poor watch maker. His father could not afford a proper education for him so he
received informal education from his father. His mother died shortly after birth. From the age of
twelve to twenty four he travelled to many places and developed sympathy for poor people. In
1735 he was given the job of tutoring the two sons of M. De Malby. From here his interest in
education began and he prepared his first treatise “Project for the education of M. De Sainte-
Maria”.
In 1756 he was provided a hermitage by a lady on her estate. Here he studied the letters
she wrote to her nine year old son and he advised her about how it was not natural for a child of
this age to be educated. He wrote “Emile” in 1762 in which he used an the imaginary description
of the education of a boy named Emile and described how the education should be imparted
starting from infancy up to manhood. He died on 17 July 1778.(Khalid, 1998).
Rousseau’s main subjects of interest were philosophy, music, education and literature.
Some of the notable ideas given by him include: general will, amour- proper, natural goodness of
humanity. Rousseau was influenced by Hobbes, Locke, Diderot, Montesquieu and Machiavelli.
He in turn influenced the works of Kant, Fichte, Hegel, Goethe, Romanticism, Paine, Comte,
Bolivar and Engels. (Wikipedia the free encyclopedia).
Aims of education
As mentioned earlier Rousseau was the leader of the naturalistic movement. According to him
“man was born free and good and could remain that way in some ideal state of nature ”.
(Noddings, 1995, p.15).His main idea was that human being is created good by God and must
make all efforts to remain that way. Rousseau had an anti social attitude because he thought that
society was responsible for corrupting the nature of man. According to Noddings (1995, p. 15):
“having to live with other people and accommodate to their needs begins a process of corruption
in man that reaches its peak in the society characteristic of Rousseau’s time.” Thus Rousseau
wanted to work towards a society in which human being would remain in his/her natural state but
still be able to mingle within the society without corrupting this natural state. As stated by
Noddings (1995, p. 15): “his was an attempt to balance the needs of conjoint living with those of
self actualization”
The theory of natural man given by him brought him towards making such a plan for
education in which a person will be able to fulfil both the needs of living in a society and remain
in a natural state. Rousseau believed that education was not merely imparting information upon
the learner. Education also takes place from the environment around him/her. Khalid (1998,
p.93) states: “Rousseau says that education comes to us from nature, from man and from things.
Here he is regarding nature as equivalent of endowment.” Rousseau believed the education from
nature to be of the utmost importance followed by education from man and things. This is
because he considers emotions to be more trustworthy then experiences. (Khalid, 1998).
So the aims of education given by Rousseau can be summarized as follows:
Development of the abilities of the learner : the abilities given to a child by God must be
developed in a way so that they are not damaged in any way and the child remains
natural.
Liberty and happiness of child: the child receiving the education must not feel over
burdened by the knowledge imparted on him/her. The child must feel free and happy
during the course of education.
Preparation for life and participation in it: during education a child must be prepared to
face all the problems and difficulties that life challenge him with. He should be able to
make his own decisions and not rely on others judgments. He must also contribute to life.
(Khalid, 1998).
Rousseau has provided very detailed information about his aims of education but it is
notable that he does not have the same aims for females. For females the aims of education differ
drastically. (Noddings, 1995).
In the words of Rousseau as cited in Noddings (1995, p.18): “The entire education of
woman must be relative to men. To please them, to be useful to them, to be loved and honoured
by them, to rear them when they are young, to care for them when they are grown up, to counsel
and console, to make their lives pleasant and charming, these are the duties of women at all
times, and they should be taught them in their child hood. To the extent that we refuse to go back
to this principle, we will stray from our goal and all percepts women are given will not result in
their happiness or our own.”
So according to Rousseau woman is only to please men and should be given an education
that takes them towards this goal.
Syllabus of Rousseau
Rousseau believed that the aims of education differ at different stages of a man’s life. So
he has provided a comprehensive syllabus for each stage of life starting from infancy to adulthood. Rousseau wrote his book “Emile” to show people how children should be brought up. In Emile Rousseau divides the development of child in five stages and gives the complete course of education for males. For females as mentioned earlier a very different syllabus is provided in his book where Sophie is the imaginary character to be educated. (jean- Jacques rousseau on nature, wholeness and education, n.d.).
Rousseau believed that children must be taught naturally but they must be taken care of by the parents and protected from unnatural prejudices, authority and force which surrounds them. (Lobo, 1974). Education- as mentioned earlier occurs from three sources: nature, man and things. According to Lobo (1974, p. 19): “natural means developing ones faculties and powers. Human(man) means making use of these natural faculties and powers. Things acquired by dealing with things(experience)”. The five stages of education as given by Lobo (1974, p.71) are:
1. Infancy : 0 – 6 years
2. Boyhood : 7 – 9 years
3. Preadolescence : 10 – 12 years
4. Adolescence : 13 – 19 years
5. Adulthood : 20 years and onwards
First stage: Infancy (0 – 6 years)
In the first stage of their life children are taught the use of their senses with experience. Education must be according to the nature of the child. No subjects must be taught. There must be no formal tutor and education must be the responsibility of the parents. At this stage child is allowed co-education with girl cousins. The parents must make sure that the child develops physically strong and healthy and that his senses are well used. The aim of education at this stage according to Khalid (1998, p. 98) is: “…to develop a well regulated sense of liberty and happiness”.
At this stage the child learns feelings such as pleasure or pain, fear of the unknown and courage in facing new situations. Memory and imagination begin at this stage the child should be allowed to touch as it gives him the idea of space and distance. Rousseau says that tears are the basis of relationships. According to Rousseau as cited in Lobo (1974, p.72): “the first tears of the infant are prayers but if one does not watch out, they will become commands.” The child is not aware of moralities and must be taught these by the adults. Precocity (premature culture) is considered bad by Rousseau. He says that the time table of nature must be followed. The maxims given by Rousseau are given in Lobo (1974, pp. 72-73) as:
Let the child employ all its faculties, especially movement
Supply physical wants
Help in real needs not imaginary needs
Learn from child’s speech and signs what his needs are.
Second stage: Boyhood (7 – 9 years)
According to Khalid(1998, p. 98) : “the aim of education at this stage is to perfect the organs and the senses that are instruments of knowledge and the development of his natural powers before knowledge is actually received.” The senses of the child must be developed with gymnastics and games and other types of exercises. The development of senses is important because these help in the proper development of reasoning and judgment. Rousseau does not opt for books at this stage of a child’s life. There should also be no verbal lessons or books for the child at this stage. According to Rousseau as cited in Khalid(1998, p.99): “reading is the curse of childhood.” Also “childhood is the sleep of reason.” (Khalid, 1998).
At this stage child must allowed to enjoy his life. The child at this point in life becomes conscious of his existence. He must be taught to live his life in accordance with the nature. This is because “man who does not live according to nature, but fashions himself through social institutions suffers misery.” (Lobo, 1974, p. 74).
Rousseau proposes the following methods for education at this stage:
· Let him be dependent on things not on persons
· Learn the hard way – through experience
· Give help only when needed
· Do not over tax the child’s capacity
· The best value is well regulated liberty
· No verbal lessons
· No punishments
· Don’t save time but lose it – the most useful rule of education at this stage
The various modes of education that must begin at this stage are:
Moral education: main thing to be taught is “never do harm to anyone”
Intellectual education: learn first by senses, then by ideas then comes judgment. One language must be learned at a time.
Motivation : child must feel the importance of learning.
Discipline : from nature not from things.
The following key concepts must also be learned:
Idea of property: what is ours
Idea of contract: respect others to be respected by others
Idea of justice: what others owe to us
Telling the truth:
Prayer: personal and not just a ritual
Charity: taught as an attitude and value
Morality: learned from the adults by watching them
(Lobo, 1974)
Third stage : preadolescence (10 – 12 years)
This stage is characterized by utility and the training of the intellect. At this stage the child is ready to receive knowledge. The aim of education at this stage given by Rousseau is “to gain useful knowledge which would satisfy his wants and desires and stand the test of practical needs.” (Khalid, 1998. P.100). At this stage the child is now ready to receive knowledge of various subjects. So the content of his education must include:
Geography: they must be taught about ones own region using ones own instruments. Here accuracy is not important as much as self confidence.
Science: this should be taught using practical methods in laboratories and workshops and not from books.
Social relations: he must be taught the importance of companionship.
Manual work: this will prepare him for any emergency that might arise.
The methods implied at this stage are:
Primary education: this must be purely negative. Don’t teach them virtue but train the heart against vice and mind against error.
Positive moral education: this can only be achieved by giving example of ones own conduct. A child learns morals by observing his adults.
Fourth stage: Adolescence (13 – 19 years)
This is the stage of morality and of moral aesthetic and social education. The aim of education at this stage according to Rousseau is “…education should shape the heart. It should make Emile loving and tender hearted. He must learn to live for others and to live together in social relationships.” (Khalid, 1998.p.101). Child must also now be taught about God. At this stage the emotions and sentiments of a man develop. The man is according to Rousseau as cited in Lobo (1974, p.79): “like a lion in his fever - does not want to be governed.” The methods and content at this stage of life should be:
· The passions: these must neither be destroyed nor prevented.
· The primordial passions: this is the love of oneself which should be in balance – not too much and not too little.
· Sex: this was at fist indeterminate but now seeks an objects.
· Friendship: is for all and must come before love for one person.
· The natural law: this is based not on reason but on love of men derived from self love.
· Study of society: the study of lives of great men show us the role of good will as well as of evil intentions. It also teaches that wars are manmade and not natural.
· Morality: this is now based on self love according to Rousseau “virtue” is self love extended to others.
· Religion: this should again be taught from nature and not from books.
· Sex education: this comes after religious education, must be given by a person whom the youth can trust, questions must be answered not aroused.
(Lobo,1974)
Fifth stage: Adulthood (20 and above)
At this stage the person enters the society the content and methods of education at this stage are as follows:
Aesthetic sense: this is developed by visiting various places such as Paris, visiting theatres, learning to look for happiness instead of wealth and study good taste and not morals.
Moral sense: a virtuous man is one who controls himself, follows his reason and his conscience. He is his own master and commands his own heart.
Home and marriage: man should make his home in the place of his birth.
(Lobo, 1974)
Conclusion:
In conclusion it can be said that Rousseau was a great philosopher of his time and his stages of life are still applicable in our present day situation. Although he was biased where the education of a female is concerned but the detailed syllabus provided for the education of males is very comprehensive and if followed can lead to a man who is self controlled and can make hai own decisions in life.
Reference list:
Jean-jacques rousseau on nature, wholeness and education (n.d.). Retrieved on April 26, 2008
from http:// www. Infed.org/thinkers/et-rous.htm
Khalid, T. (1998). Education: An introduction to educational philosophy and history.
Islamabad: National book foundation.
Lobo, A.T. (1974). Educational ideas and their impact. Karachi: Rotti press.
Noddings, N. (1995). Philosophy of education: dimensions of philosophy series. Colorado:
Westview press.
Wikipedia (n.d.). Jean- Jacques Rousseau. Retrieved on April 26, 2008
from http:// Wikipedia.com/Jean-Jacques Rousseau.htm
Rousseau is one of the famous Western philosophers of the eighteenth century. During
the seventeenth and the eighteenth centuries reason ruled as a god , and people like Voltaire revolted against it. Rousseau also led the revolt against reason and he made nature the sole authority over human affairs.
Rousseau saw a great divide between the society and the nature and so led the second revolt
which was called as the naturalistic movement. He had a great emotion and sympathy for the
common man. (Khalid, 1998).
Jean- Jacques Rousseau was born on 28 June 1712 in the Geneva, Switzerland in the
house of a poor watch maker. His father could not afford a proper education for him so he
received informal education from his father. His mother died shortly after birth. From the age of
twelve to twenty four he travelled to many places and developed sympathy for poor people. In
1735 he was given the job of tutoring the two sons of M. De Malby. From here his interest in
education began and he prepared his first treatise “Project for the education of M. De Sainte-
Maria”.
In 1756 he was provided a hermitage by a lady on her estate. Here he studied the letters
she wrote to her nine year old son and he advised her about how it was not natural for a child of
this age to be educated. He wrote “Emile” in 1762 in which he used an the imaginary description
of the education of a boy named Emile and described how the education should be imparted
starting from infancy up to manhood. He died on 17 July 1778.(Khalid, 1998).
Rousseau’s main subjects of interest were philosophy, music, education and literature.
Some of the notable ideas given by him include: general will, amour- proper, natural goodness of
humanity. Rousseau was influenced by Hobbes, Locke, Diderot, Montesquieu and Machiavelli.
He in turn influenced the works of Kant, Fichte, Hegel, Goethe, Romanticism, Paine, Comte,
Bolivar and Engels. (Wikipedia the free encyclopedia).
Aims of education
As mentioned earlier Rousseau was the leader of the naturalistic movement. According to him
“man was born free and good and could remain that way in some ideal state of nature ”.
(Noddings, 1995, p.15).His main idea was that human being is created good by God and must
make all efforts to remain that way. Rousseau had an anti social attitude because he thought that
society was responsible for corrupting the nature of man. According to Noddings (1995, p. 15):
“having to live with other people and accommodate to their needs begins a process of corruption
in man that reaches its peak in the society characteristic of Rousseau’s time.” Thus Rousseau
wanted to work towards a society in which human being would remain in his/her natural state but
still be able to mingle within the society without corrupting this natural state. As stated by
Noddings (1995, p. 15): “his was an attempt to balance the needs of conjoint living with those of
self actualization”
The theory of natural man given by him brought him towards making such a plan for
education in which a person will be able to fulfil both the needs of living in a society and remain
in a natural state. Rousseau believed that education was not merely imparting information upon
the learner. Education also takes place from the environment around him/her. Khalid (1998,
p.93) states: “Rousseau says that education comes to us from nature, from man and from things.
Here he is regarding nature as equivalent of endowment.” Rousseau believed the education from
nature to be of the utmost importance followed by education from man and things. This is
because he considers emotions to be more trustworthy then experiences. (Khalid, 1998).
So the aims of education given by Rousseau can be summarized as follows:
Development of the abilities of the learner : the abilities given to a child by God must be
developed in a way so that they are not damaged in any way and the child remains
natural.
Liberty and happiness of child: the child receiving the education must not feel over
burdened by the knowledge imparted on him/her. The child must feel free and happy
during the course of education.
Preparation for life and participation in it: during education a child must be prepared to
face all the problems and difficulties that life challenge him with. He should be able to
make his own decisions and not rely on others judgments. He must also contribute to life.
(Khalid, 1998).
Rousseau has provided very detailed information about his aims of education but it is
notable that he does not have the same aims for females. For females the aims of education differ
drastically. (Noddings, 1995).
In the words of Rousseau as cited in Noddings (1995, p.18): “The entire education of
woman must be relative to men. To please them, to be useful to them, to be loved and honoured
by them, to rear them when they are young, to care for them when they are grown up, to counsel
and console, to make their lives pleasant and charming, these are the duties of women at all
times, and they should be taught them in their child hood. To the extent that we refuse to go back
to this principle, we will stray from our goal and all percepts women are given will not result in
their happiness or our own.”
So according to Rousseau woman is only to please men and should be given an education
that takes them towards this goal.
Syllabus of Rousseau
Rousseau believed that the aims of education differ at different stages of a man’s life. So
he has provided a comprehensive syllabus for each stage of life starting from infancy to adulthood. Rousseau wrote his book “Emile” to show people how children should be brought up. In Emile Rousseau divides the development of child in five stages and gives the complete course of education for males. For females as mentioned earlier a very different syllabus is provided in his book where Sophie is the imaginary character to be educated. (jean- Jacques rousseau on nature, wholeness and education, n.d.).
Rousseau believed that children must be taught naturally but they must be taken care of by the parents and protected from unnatural prejudices, authority and force which surrounds them. (Lobo, 1974). Education- as mentioned earlier occurs from three sources: nature, man and things. According to Lobo (1974, p. 19): “natural means developing ones faculties and powers. Human(man) means making use of these natural faculties and powers. Things acquired by dealing with things(experience)”. The five stages of education as given by Lobo (1974, p.71) are:
1. Infancy : 0 – 6 years
2. Boyhood : 7 – 9 years
3. Preadolescence : 10 – 12 years
4. Adolescence : 13 – 19 years
5. Adulthood : 20 years and onwards
First stage: Infancy (0 – 6 years)
In the first stage of their life children are taught the use of their senses with experience. Education must be according to the nature of the child. No subjects must be taught. There must be no formal tutor and education must be the responsibility of the parents. At this stage child is allowed co-education with girl cousins. The parents must make sure that the child develops physically strong and healthy and that his senses are well used. The aim of education at this stage according to Khalid (1998, p. 98) is: “…to develop a well regulated sense of liberty and happiness”.
At this stage the child learns feelings such as pleasure or pain, fear of the unknown and courage in facing new situations. Memory and imagination begin at this stage the child should be allowed to touch as it gives him the idea of space and distance. Rousseau says that tears are the basis of relationships. According to Rousseau as cited in Lobo (1974, p.72): “the first tears of the infant are prayers but if one does not watch out, they will become commands.” The child is not aware of moralities and must be taught these by the adults. Precocity (premature culture) is considered bad by Rousseau. He says that the time table of nature must be followed. The maxims given by Rousseau are given in Lobo (1974, pp. 72-73) as:
Let the child employ all its faculties, especially movement
Supply physical wants
Help in real needs not imaginary needs
Learn from child’s speech and signs what his needs are.
Second stage: Boyhood (7 – 9 years)
According to Khalid(1998, p. 98) : “the aim of education at this stage is to perfect the organs and the senses that are instruments of knowledge and the development of his natural powers before knowledge is actually received.” The senses of the child must be developed with gymnastics and games and other types of exercises. The development of senses is important because these help in the proper development of reasoning and judgment. Rousseau does not opt for books at this stage of a child’s life. There should also be no verbal lessons or books for the child at this stage. According to Rousseau as cited in Khalid(1998, p.99): “reading is the curse of childhood.” Also “childhood is the sleep of reason.” (Khalid, 1998).
At this stage child must allowed to enjoy his life. The child at this point in life becomes conscious of his existence. He must be taught to live his life in accordance with the nature. This is because “man who does not live according to nature, but fashions himself through social institutions suffers misery.” (Lobo, 1974, p. 74).
Rousseau proposes the following methods for education at this stage:
· Let him be dependent on things not on persons
· Learn the hard way – through experience
· Give help only when needed
· Do not over tax the child’s capacity
· The best value is well regulated liberty
· No verbal lessons
· No punishments
· Don’t save time but lose it – the most useful rule of education at this stage
The various modes of education that must begin at this stage are:
Moral education: main thing to be taught is “never do harm to anyone”
Intellectual education: learn first by senses, then by ideas then comes judgment. One language must be learned at a time.
Motivation : child must feel the importance of learning.
Discipline : from nature not from things.
The following key concepts must also be learned:
Idea of property: what is ours
Idea of contract: respect others to be respected by others
Idea of justice: what others owe to us
Telling the truth:
Prayer: personal and not just a ritual
Charity: taught as an attitude and value
Morality: learned from the adults by watching them
(Lobo, 1974)
Third stage : preadolescence (10 – 12 years)
This stage is characterized by utility and the training of the intellect. At this stage the child is ready to receive knowledge. The aim of education at this stage given by Rousseau is “to gain useful knowledge which would satisfy his wants and desires and stand the test of practical needs.” (Khalid, 1998. P.100). At this stage the child is now ready to receive knowledge of various subjects. So the content of his education must include:
Geography: they must be taught about ones own region using ones own instruments. Here accuracy is not important as much as self confidence.
Science: this should be taught using practical methods in laboratories and workshops and not from books.
Social relations: he must be taught the importance of companionship.
Manual work: this will prepare him for any emergency that might arise.
The methods implied at this stage are:
Primary education: this must be purely negative. Don’t teach them virtue but train the heart against vice and mind against error.
Positive moral education: this can only be achieved by giving example of ones own conduct. A child learns morals by observing his adults.
Fourth stage: Adolescence (13 – 19 years)
This is the stage of morality and of moral aesthetic and social education. The aim of education at this stage according to Rousseau is “…education should shape the heart. It should make Emile loving and tender hearted. He must learn to live for others and to live together in social relationships.” (Khalid, 1998.p.101). Child must also now be taught about God. At this stage the emotions and sentiments of a man develop. The man is according to Rousseau as cited in Lobo (1974, p.79): “like a lion in his fever - does not want to be governed.” The methods and content at this stage of life should be:
· The passions: these must neither be destroyed nor prevented.
· The primordial passions: this is the love of oneself which should be in balance – not too much and not too little.
· Sex: this was at fist indeterminate but now seeks an objects.
· Friendship: is for all and must come before love for one person.
· The natural law: this is based not on reason but on love of men derived from self love.
· Study of society: the study of lives of great men show us the role of good will as well as of evil intentions. It also teaches that wars are manmade and not natural.
· Morality: this is now based on self love according to Rousseau “virtue” is self love extended to others.
· Religion: this should again be taught from nature and not from books.
· Sex education: this comes after religious education, must be given by a person whom the youth can trust, questions must be answered not aroused.
(Lobo,1974)
Fifth stage: Adulthood (20 and above)
At this stage the person enters the society the content and methods of education at this stage are as follows:
Aesthetic sense: this is developed by visiting various places such as Paris, visiting theatres, learning to look for happiness instead of wealth and study good taste and not morals.
Moral sense: a virtuous man is one who controls himself, follows his reason and his conscience. He is his own master and commands his own heart.
Home and marriage: man should make his home in the place of his birth.
(Lobo, 1974)
Conclusion:
In conclusion it can be said that Rousseau was a great philosopher of his time and his stages of life are still applicable in our present day situation. Although he was biased where the education of a female is concerned but the detailed syllabus provided for the education of males is very comprehensive and if followed can lead to a man who is self controlled and can make hai own decisions in life.
Reference list:
Jean-jacques rousseau on nature, wholeness and education (n.d.). Retrieved on April 26, 2008
from http:// www. Infed.org/thinkers/et-rous.htm
Khalid, T. (1998). Education: An introduction to educational philosophy and history.
Islamabad: National book foundation.
Lobo, A.T. (1974). Educational ideas and their impact. Karachi: Rotti press.
Noddings, N. (1995). Philosophy of education: dimensions of philosophy series. Colorado:
Westview press.
Wikipedia (n.d.). Jean- Jacques Rousseau. Retrieved on April 26, 2008
from http:// Wikipedia.com/Jean-Jacques Rousseau.htm
Teaching
Profession is Highly Respectable
Teaching
as a profession is valued as much as it was earlier? If not, what are the
reasons behind it?I am fully agreed with you that there is no other profession like teaching. A teacher is one makes the future of country. But at present the condition of teachers is pathetic who work in a private school except those who are employed in Government Schools. There are still many schools who exploit teachers by paying low.
teaching
profession has always been a noble profession as it is responsible for creating
and nurturing brilliant and intelligent minds by imparting knowledge. in india
teachers have always been respected to the cadre of a parent and above.. india
needs dedicated and well educated teachers now to bring up the young souls as
these days education has become a struggle..
Teaching as a
profession is becoming more popular among students who aspire of being a
teacher. teaching profession is considered as the most reputed profession and
teachers get all the required respect they need from the people in the society.
This profession is good especially for girls.
In India teaching
profession has always been credited to the highest level. teachers are seen as
next to gods by the students as well as others for they are the ones who impart
knowledge and nurture young minds. India needs teachers who can impart both
spiritual and academic values in young minds for we are a country with rich
tradition and spiritual values. I do not see teachers are as much valued as
before and i think the reason lies with both teachers and children themselves.
Teaching is a
reputed profession around the world and this is the considered as the best
profession among girls as girls will get all respect and security that is
required by any woman. Teaching profession required a professional degree so
that the teachers are trained to teach the subjects and handle the students in
the right way. These days the scene of teachers in school have changed a lot
due to the change in the schools and its atmosphere. They have become more
modern and teachers have become more frank with the children.
teaching is the
good profession for boys and girls both equally. It is the most reputed job
that one can opt for. People are inclined towards this profession a lot these
days due to the money remuneration they get along with the respect by the
people in the community and students of all age. SO I guess taking teaching as
a profession is a good choice as teachers has the responsibility to change the
thinking of students mind.
I agree that
teaching profession has long been termed as noble profession but teachers these
days are not given such status. The reason is also justifiable because teachers
these days merely get into profession to make their living. Most of the
teachers in government schools don't even teach which is the reason why quality
of education in rural parts of our country is low. do you agree?
Teaching is
regarded as one of the noble professions. It is a matter of respect to become a
teacher and imapart knowledge but off late the profession has seen lots of ups
and downs due to some of the fellow teacher who is more keen to earn money
rather than imparting knowledge. There is no doubt that the teachers are paid
very low and they deserve a lot more than what they get. The Government should
provide more facility and increase the pay scale of the teachers as they are
the ones who can make the nation educated and as a result help in curbing the
evils from the society.
Panel proposes code of ethics for teachers and a
monitor too
Like
doctors and lawyers, teachers may soon be subject to a "code of
professional ethics", which includes clauses for disciplinary action over
corporal punishment, private tuitions and other "anti-community"
activities.
If
accepted by the government, the proposed code would apply to school teachers
across the country, from primary to secondary and senior secondary levels, and
across government as well as private schools, with the aim of restoring
"dignity and integrity" to the vocation of teaching.
One
of the most far-reaching recommendations of the code is setting up of a
professional body like the Indian Medical Association or Bar Council of India,
which applies to professionals in their respective fields and imposes penalties
in case of reported violations of ethical practices.
The
four-member committee that formulated the code after examining similar codes in
other nations is headed by former NCERT director Prof A K Sharma and includes
Prof G L Arora (former head, Department of Teacher Education, NCERT), Prof
Najma Amin (Head, Department of Educational Studies, Jamia Milia Islamia), and
Prof Pranati Panda (Department of Comparative Education and International
Cooperation, National University of Educational Planning & International
Cooperation).
The
committee has already shared its interim report on the proposed code with
several state governments, and will be submitting the final report to the Union
Human Resource Development (HRD) Ministry by month end.
Recommending
the code in view of Section 24 of the Right to Education Act laying down duties
and responsibilities of teachers, the committee says that the code is perhaps
the answer, as self-regulation — though desirable — leaves scope for
violations. According to the code, the primary obligation of a teacher lies
towards his/her pupils, and it underlines that teachers must treat all children
equally, irrespective of their class, caste, religion or gender. It
specifically warns a teacher against "subjecting any child to fear,
trauma, anxiety, physical punishment and mental and emotional harassment"
and "from any act involving sexual abuse of the child".
Curriculum
In
formal education, a curriculum (/kəˈrɪkjʉləm/; plural: curricula /kəˈrɪkjʉlə/ or curriculums) is the planned
interaction of pupils with instructional content, materials, resources, and
processes for evaluating the attainment of educational objectives. Other
definitions combine various elements to describe curriculum as follows:
All the learning which is planned and guided by
the school, whether it is carried on in groups or individually, inside or
outside the school. (John Kerr)
Outlines the skills, performances, attitudes,
and values pupils are expected to learn from schooling. It includes statements
of desired pupil outcomes, descriptions of materials, and the planned sequence
that will be used to help pupils attain the outcomes.
The total learning experience provided by a
school. It includes the content of courses (the syllabus), the methods employed
(strategies), and other aspects, like norms and values, which relate to the way
the school is organized.
The aggregate of courses of study given in a
learning environment. The courses are arranged in a sequence to make learning a
subject easier. In schools, a curriculum spans several grades.
Curriculum can refer to the entire program
provided by a classroom, school, district, state, or country. A classroom is
assigned sections of the curriculum as defined by the school. For example, a
fourth grade class teaches the part of the school curriculum that has been
designed as developmentally appropriate for students who are approximately nine
years of age.
As
an idea, curriculum came from the Latin word which means a race or the course of a race (which in turn derives from
the verb "currere" meaning to run/to proceed). As early as the
seventeenth century, the University of Glasgow referred to its
"course" of study as a curriculum, and by the nineteenth
century European universities routinely referred to their curriculum to
describe both the complete course of study (as for a degree in Surgery) and
particular courses and their content. By the beginning of the twentieth
century, the related term curriculum vitae ("course of one's
life") became a common expression to refer to a brief account of the
course of one's life.[1]
A
curriculum is prescriptive, and is based on a more general syllabus which merely specifies what
topics must be understood and to what level to achieve a particular grade or
standard. Curriculum has numerous definitions, which can be slightly confusing.
In its broadest sense a curriculum may refer to all courses offered at a
school. This is particularly true of schools at the university level, where the
diversity of a curriculum might be an attractive point to a potential student.
A
curriculum may also refer to a defined and prescribed course of studies, which
students must fulfill in order to pass a certain level of education. For
example, an elementary school might discuss how its curriculum, or its entire
sum of lessons and teachings, is designed to improve national testing scores or
help students learn the basics. An individual teacher might also refer to his
or her curriculum, meaning all the subjects that will be taught during a school
year.
On
the other hand, a high school might refer to a curriculum as the courses
required in order to receive one’s diploma. They might also refer to curriculum
in exactly the same way as the elementary school, and use curriculum to mean
both individual courses needed to pass, and the overall offering of courses,
which help prepare a student for life after high school.
Some
of the beliefs that result in very difficult or living is a question that
sometimes occupies curriculum designers. Traditionally high school prepared
students for college. Those students who did not intend to go to college often
dropped out of high school. During the middle of the 20th century it was
believed that high school was valuable for all students so the high schools
began tracking students. Some took more rigorous classes to prepare for college
while others took a general track. Later high schools added courses to prepare for
vocations that did not require college. Now high school is desired for all
students.
Should curriculum be designed as pieces or as a
whole? One concern in the 1990s and after is the fragmented curriculum. This
has resulted from adding courses and content without aligning them to what is
already being taught. The curriculum today has many pieces, but seems not to
have a wholeness about it. For example, even in the primary grades, there may
be classes in phonetics, reading, language arts, and writing. This is very
fragmented as reading and writing are part of the whole system of communicating
with symbols.
What is a good balance between academic
achievement and developmentally appropriate curriculum is an ongoing question.
Academic achievement sets levels of standards to meet in certain grade levels
which is advocated by those who believe all students should attain the same
skills; however, those who are aware of developmental stages and the problems
of late development believe that levels of standards should be more flexible
and compared over multiage levels.
Should it be a spiral or mastery curriculum is a
major design question. The American curriculum has been a spiral curriculum in
which many ideas are introduced at each grade and then repeated at following
grades to add depth of understanding. The Outcome Based curriculum advocated by
Spady used a different approach, that of mastery. For this, the students study
a topic in depth until it is mastered. The question of “what is mastery?” has
been discussed by many curriculum committees as they implement this type of
curriculum.
Traditional
Points of View of Curriculum
In
the early years of the 20th century, the traditional concepts held of the
"curriculum is that it is a body of subjects or subject matter prepared by
the teachers for the students to learn." It was synonymous to the
"course of study" and "syllabus".
Robert
M. Hutchins views curriculum as
"permanent studies" where the rules of grammar, rhetoric and logic
and mathematics for basic education are emphasized. Basic education should
emphasize 3 Rs and college education should be grounded on liberal education.
On the other hand, Arthur Bestor as an essentialist, believes
that the mission of the school should be intellectual training, hence
curriculum should focus on the fundamental intellectual disciplines of grammar,
literature and writing. It should also include mathematics, science, history
and foreign language.
This
definition leads us to the view of Joseph Schwab that discipline is the sole
source of curriculum. Thus in our education system, curriculum is divided into
chunks of knowledge we call subject areas in basic education such as English,
Mathematics, Science, Social Studies and others. In college, discipline may
include humanities, sciences, languages and many more. To Phenix, curriculum
should consist entirely of knowledge which comes from various disciplines.
Thus
curriculum can be viewed as a field of study. It is made up of its foundations
(philosophical, historical, psychological, and social foundations); domains of
knowledge as well as its research theories and principles. Curriculum is taken
as scholarly and theoretical. It is concerned with broad historical,
philosophical and social issues and academics.
Progressive
Points of View of Curriculum
On
the other hand, to a progressivist, a listing of school subjects, syllabi,
course of study, and list of courses of specific discipline do not make a
curriculum. These can only be called curriculum if the written materials are
actualized by the learner. Broadly speaking, curriculum is defined as the total
learning experiences of the individual. This definition is anchored on John Dewey's definition of experience
and education. He believed that reflective thinking is a means that unifies
curricular elements. Thought is not derived from action but tested by
application.
Caswell
and Campbell viewed curriculum as "all experiences children have under the
guidance of teachers." This definition is shared by Smith, Stanley and
shores when they defined "curriculum as a sequence of potential
experiences set up in schools for the purpose of disciplining children and
youth in group ways of thinking and acting."
Marsh
and Willis on the other hand view curriculum as all the "experiences in
the classroom which are planned and enacted by teacher, and also learned by the
students.[2]
File:Curriculum Concept.svg In The Curriculum,[3] the first textbook published
on the subject, in 1918, John Franklin Bobbitt said that curriculum, as an idea, has its roots in the Latin word for race-course, explaining the curriculum
as the course of deeds and experiences through which children become the adults they should be, for success in adult society. Furthermore, the curriculum
encompasses the entire scope of formative deed and experience occurring in and
out of school, and not only experiences occurring inschool; experiences that are unplanned and undirected, and experiences
intentionally directed for the purposeful formation of adult members of
society. (cf. image at right.)
To
Bobbitt, the curriculum is a social engineering arena. Per his cultural
presumptions and social definitions, his curricular formulation has two notable
features: (i) that scientific experts would best be
qualified to and justified in designing curricula based upon their expertknowledge of what qualities are
desirable in adult members of society, and which experiences would generate
said qualities; and (ii) curriculum defined as the deeds-experiences the
student ought to have to become the adult he or she ought to become.
Hence,
he defined the curriculum as an ideal, rather than as the concrete reality of the deeds and experiences
that form people to who and what they are.
Contemporary
views of curriculum reject these features of Bobbitt's postulates, but retain
the basis of curriculum as the course of experience(s) that forms human beings
into persons. Personal formation via curricula is studied at
the personal level and at the group level, i.e. cultures and societies (e.g.
professional formation, academic
discipline via historical experience).
The formation of a group is reciprocal, with the formation of its individual
participants.
Although
it formally appeared in Bobbitt's definition, curriculum as a course of
formative experience also pervades John Dewey's work (who disagreed with
Bobbitt on important matters). Although Bobbitt's and Dewey's idealistic understanding
of "curriculum" is different from current, restricted uses of the
word, curriculum writers and researchers generally share it as common,
substantive understanding of curriculum.[4][5]
A
curriculum may be partly or entirely determined by an external, authoritative
body (e.g., the National Curriculum for
England inEnglish schools).
In
the U.S., each state, with the individual school districts, establishes the curricula
taught.[6] Each state, however, builds
its curriculum with great participation of national[7] academic subject groups
selected by the United States Department of Education, e.g. National Council of
Teachers of Mathematics (NCTM)[8] for mathematical instruction.
In Australia each state's Education
Department establishes curricula with plans for a National Curriculum in 2011.
UNESCO's International Bureau of Education[9] has the primary mission of
studying curricula and their implementation worldwide.
Curriculum[10] means two things: (i) the range
of courses from which students choose what subject matters to study, and (ii) a
specific learning program. In the latter case, the curriculum collectively
describes the teaching, learning, and assessment
materials available for a given course of study.
Currently,
a spiral curriculum is promoted as allowing
students to revisit a subject matter's content at the different levels of
development of the subject matter being studied. The constructivist approach proposes that
children learn best via pro-active engagement with the educational environment,
i.e. learning thru discovery.
Crucial
to the curriculum is the definition of the course objectives that usually are
expressed as learning outcomes' and normally include the
program's assessment strategy. These
outcomes and assessments are grouped as units (or modules), and, therefore,
the curriculum comprises a collection of such units, each, in turn, comprising
a specialised, specific part of the curriculum. So, a typical curriculum
includes communications, numeracy, information technology, and social skills
units, with specific, specialized teaching of each.
A core curriculum is a curriculum, or course of
study, which is deemed central and usually made mandatory for all students of aschool or school system. However,
this is not always the case. For example, a school might mandate a music
appreciation class, but students may opt out if they take a performing musical
class, such as orchestra, band, chorus, etc. Core curricula are often
instituted, at the primary and secondary levels, by school boards,
Departments of Education, or other administrative agencies charged with
overseeing education.
In
the United States, the Common Core State Standards Initiative promulgates a core curriculum
for states to adopt and optionally expand upon. This coordination is intended
to make it possible to use more of the same textbooks across states, and to
move toward a more uniform minimum level of educational attainment.
******************************
Notion of Child-Centered Education:
As
the public increasingly views children as persons with rights, educators are
implementing more child-centered approaches. Our discussion of the rights of
children fits in nicely with the topic of child-centered education. Child-centered is
a widely used term that is often misunderstood, leading to heated debates and
misinterpretation of instructional practices. It will be helpful to keep these
guiding principles about child-centered education in mind as you work with
children, parents, and colleagues:
All children have a right to an education that
helps them grow and develop to their fullest; this basic premise is at the
heart of our understanding of child-centered education. Therefore, daily
interactions with children should be based on the fundamental question, Am I
teaching and supporting all children in their growth and development across all
domains—social, emotional, physical, linguistic, and intellectual? Such
teaching is at the heart of developmentally appropriate practice.
Every child is a unique and special
individual. Consequently, we have to teach individual children and be
respectful of and account for their individual uniqueness of age, gender,
culture, temperament, and learning style.
Children are active participants in their own
education and development. This means that they should be mentally involved and
physically active in learning what they need to know and do.
Children’s ideas, preferences, learning
styles, and interests are considered in the planning for and implementation of
instructional practices.
Child-centered
education has been an important foundation of early childhood education since
the time of Froebel. As a professional, you will want to make your teaching and
practice child centered. In addition, you will want to advocate for the
inherent right of every child to a child-centered education.
A
reemphasis on child-centered education is occurring as society in general is
becoming more interested in the whole child and efforts to address all of
children’s needs, not just their academic needs. As a result, there is much
more concern for encouraging children to be healthy and lead healthy
lifestyles. Providing children with medical immunizations and seeing that all
children are fully immunized by age two have received a lot of attention, and
programs to help children be free of drugs are common in early childhood and
primary programs. Concern for the welfare of children in all areas of their
growth and development is evident and attests to the public’s growing awareness
of their basic rights.
All
great educators have believed in the basic goodness of children; the teacher is
to provide the environment for this goodness to manifest itself. A central
theme of Luther, Comenius, Pestalozzi, Froebel, Montessori, and Dewey is that
we must do our work as educators well, and we must really care about those whom
we have been called to serve. This indeed is the essence of child-centered
education.
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Until relatively
recently, children were taught the three R's in a fairly straightforward
fashion. The teacher explained the lesson and then the children practised it.
No other way of accomplishing the job even occurred to anyone until the 18th-century
Romantic philosopher Jean-Jacques Rousseau began to advocate that educators
"follow nature", slow down their students' intellectual growth and
wait for them to demonstrate interest in a subject. Rousseau's ideas did not
gain common currency, however, until they were adopted by the American social
scientist John Dewey around the turn of this century. Dewey's
recommendations, such as his emphasis on "learning by doing" and
his belief that the process is more important than the product, were
immediately hailed with enthusiasm by many American educators who began to
implement them in American schools in the 1920's. The influence of
"progressive" ideas grew steadily, but the full weight of the dogma
did not fall on Ontario schools until the late 1960's when the Hall-Dennis
Report was released.
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Child-centred learning is considered to be a philosophy,
as opposed to a methodology, and therefore no two classrooms are alike.
Generally speaking, however, a child-centred teacher tries to create an
environment which will motivate the children to discover new skills and
knowledge. Teachers are no longer supposed to transfer facts into passive
students' heads but rather facilitate their discovery of relevant
information. As a result, teachers rarely stand in front of the class and
teach a lesson. Instead, activity centres may be set up around the room with
the children moving from station to station, or students might be assigned to
work together in groups on a project. Relatively little whole-class teaching
takes place; rather teachers use methods such as peer tutoring, individual
and group projects, and teacher conferencing with one student while the rest
of the class works alone.
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There have not been many evaluations of the latest
versions of child-centred learning, mainly because its proponents reject the
validity of all tests. There are, however, indicators that suggest that there
are serious drawbacks to child-centred learning.
Child-centred classrooms generate large numbers of
"learning-disabled" children who need remedial teaching. (The
American Academic of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry estimates that learning
disabilities affect as many as 15% of otherwise able school-children.)
In England, which pioneered child-centred methods in the
1960's, recent tests have revealed that more than half of 11-year-olds failed
to reach the required standard in English and math, while 45% of 14-year-olds
achieved no more than the level expected of an 11-year-old in the core
subjects of English, science and math.
By age nine, the performance of Canadian students on
international comparisons of academic achievement is already mediocre or
worse. (Education and Training in Canada, pp. 11-18)
In 1991, the average Canadian grade eight student was
almost one year behind his 1966 counterpart in academic achievement
(Education and Training in Canada, pp. 22-23)
"Four out of 10 Canadian adults (38 percent) have
some difficulty with everyday reading and math demands." (Learning Well,
Living Well, p.5)
"Fifty-five percent of Canadian Manufacturers'
Association members say the performance of recent high school graduates rate
poor or fair in meeting elementary job requirements." (Plant, Canada's
Industrial Newspaper, p. 46)
Parent groups have spontaneously arisen in many
jurisdictions because they believe their children are not acquiring their
basic skills.
There is a steady increase in the number of children who
are being home-schooled or sent to private schools or tutors.
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For centuries, good teachers have been successfully using
methods now called direct instruction to teach basic skills and knowledge. In
direct instruction, the teacher presents the new skill or knowledge clearly
and simply to the students. Usually the lesson builds on previous learning.
The students are then required to practise and extend the lesson and are
given immediate feedback. Finally, the students are tested for mastery.
Remediation and review are provided where necessary. Classroom comparisons
over the last 20 years show how direct instruction can be implemented for the
best results, consistently surpassing child-centred methods.
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Prior to around 1980 when the proponents of child-centred
learning began to refuse to take part, a number of comparative studies were
carried out. One example was a comparison of 10 child-centred and 10
conventional classrooms in Etobicoke in the mid-1970's. When the conventional
classrooms were found to be superior in most respects, the Etobicoke Board
suppressed the study and implemented child-centred learning system-wide.
(Holmes, pp. 3-7)
A much larger comparison was carried out from 1968 to 1977
when the U.S. Government spent one billion dollars on the world's largest
educational experiment, Project Follow-Through. In this study, the
effectiveness of 13 different educational approaches was compared by testing
tens of thousands of children who had been taught by one of the 13 approaches.
Project Follow-Through proved that the Direct Instruction model was markedly
better than the other approaches. Direct Instruction students placed first in
reading, arithmetic, spelling - in fact in all the basic skills, including
problem-solving. As well, Direct Instruction students had the highest
self-esteem. In contrast, the extremely-progressive approaches, which
featured child-centred learning, consistently got the worst scores. (The War
Against the Schools' Academic Child Abuse, pp. 3-6)
In addition, 153 smaller comparison studies were reviewed
by Giaconia and Hedges who found that teacher-controlled forms of instruction
were more effective in promoting academic achievement. (Giaconia and Hedges,
pp. 579-602)
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The proponents of child-centred learning continue to deny
the importance of direct instruction for teaching basic skills and knowledge.
The decision to use child-centred learning is generally made on behalf of
classroom teachers by their principals, boards and ministries/departments of
education and faculties of education/teachers' colleges. Most teachers are on
the receiving end of a great deal of persuasion, propaganda and even
regulation designed to prevent them from using direct instruction.
Thus, when parents ask their child's teacher to use direct
instruction, the teacher often becomes defensive. Not only is he/she
frequently discouraged by superiors from using direct instruction, but also
direct instruction materials are often not available. In addition, few
teachers have received training in the use of direct instruction. The
responses which educators most often make to parents' requests for direct
instruction, along with SQE's presentation of the facts, are listed on the
attached pages.
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If your child is struggling with basic skills, we strongly
encourage you to ensure that he/she gets help right away. Teaching a child
basic skills is usually not very difficult, and Direct instruction children
typically do very well in child-centred classrooms. It is generally harder to
teach children basic skills once they have been exposed to child-centred
learning because of the need to break bad habits like carelessness and
disorganization. The key is to go right back to the start and take the time
to build a solid foundation before beginning to add, step-by-step,
progressively more difficult work.
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First-grade marks in reading and arithmetic are powerful
predictors of high school performance. (Simner and Barnes, p. 334). Basic
skills and knowledge are critically important. All academic subjects are
dependent on them.
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1. The research says that child-centred learning is the
best way to teach children.
There is a huge amount of research on teaching, and it is
of varying quality. The type of research cited by child-centred learning
proponents is usually:
small scale; and/or
flawed; and/or
off-topic; and/or
supporting direct instruction; and/or
someone's opinion.
Large-scale, empirical research clearly shows that direct
instruction is the best known way to teach children basic skills. (War
Against the Schools' Academic Child Abuse, pp. 3-6)
2. Because all children learn differently, we use a
variety of methods to teach them. No one method is best.
It is true that children are very different, and even the
same children learn best from different methods at different times. SQE does
not claim that every child will learn better with direct instruction and that
no child can learn without direct instruction. We simply state that direct
instruction is the single best bet, and that it should be the systematic
starting point for teaching nearly all children basic skills and knowledge.
Direct instruction is known to be most effective for
subject areas where the learning objective is the mastery of well-defined
skills or knowledge - mathematics, spelling and grammar, for example. Direct
instruction has not been shown to be superior for less structured learning
objectives, such as team-work or music appreciation.
Effective teachers use a variety of approaches over the
course of a day, taking into consideration the learning objective, the number
of children involved, the children's characteristics, the resources available,
and so on. Classroom studies show that, in the absence of more compelling
factors, direct instruction should be the method of choice for teaching basic
skills and knowledge. (Rosenshine and Stevens, pp. 376-378)
3. But we do use Direct Instruction.
Surprisingly few teachers are familiar with the set of
procedures used in direct instruction: presentation of the new material in a
clear, step-by-step fashion; checking for understanding; guided practice;
immediate feedback and correction; independent practice; testing; and review.
Accordingly, many teachers think that they are using direct instruction just
by teaching a lesson to the whole class.
In order to determine whether a teacher is using direct
instruction, ask whether he/she includes all of the elements of a lesson
listed above, especially the immediate feedback and correction.
4. Children should be allowed to go at their own pace.
Child-centred learning is based in part on the belief that
one should wait until a child develops certain concepts and skills
spontaneously and on his/her own. Furthermore, it is believed that some
children are "late bloomers" and should not be subjected to
age-appropriate standards until they have had a chance to bloom.
In practice, this philosophy means that a large number of
children gradually fall behind the rest - and nothing is done about it. There
is no designated milestone at which someone steps in and arranges for failing
students to get extra help. As a result, a great many children just get
further and further behind until they have no realistic chance of ever
catching up.
Direct instruction teachers, in contrast, do not let
children go at their own pace. Instead, they set the pace themselves and then
use good direct instruction to enable the whole class to move at that speed.
Similarly, direct instruction teachers do not wait for children to
"become ready" or "bloom." Instead, they help them to get
ready - by teaching them carefully-sequenced skills and knowledge, always
first laying a foundation before adding the next item in the series.
Are there exceptions? Of course. Good direct instruction
teachers encourage the occasional child who has already mastered a skill to
work on more advanced tasks.
5. We consider the higher-order skills, like
decision-making, computer literacy and research skills, to be more important
than the basic skills.
More advanced learning builds on basic learning, and it is
vain to try to reverse the order.
In order to master complex skills, one must first develop
the necessary sub-skills in a step-by-step manner. Beginners do not become
experts by immediately attempting the most difficult repertoire; rather, they
slowly and carefully develop the pre-requisite abilities by means of hard
work and constant feedback. There are no short-cuts.
Test results show that Canadian children are worse at the
more complex mathematical problems than at the basic ones, compared with
other countries.
When children are encouraged to tackle difficult tasks
prematurely, they often devise crutches which are useful as a coping strategy
at the time but may be hard to throw away later. An example would be primary
children who develop "hunt and peck" typing strategies and later
have a difficult time making the transition to touch-typing. It would be
preferable to begin computer work by teaching the pre-requisite skills, such
as touch-typing and the various applications.
We agree that the higher-order skills are more important
than the basic skills but they cannot be achieved without them.
6. We don't want to stifle the children's creativity by
subjecting them to the rote teaching and tedious drill involved in direct
instruction approaches.
Child-centred learning was developed in reaction to the
endless worksheets and mind-numbing memorization which characterized some
traditional classrooms in the past. However, the pendulum has swung too far
in the opposite direction. A middle ground of some worksheets, some
memorization and some drill is best for most children.
There is no evidence that child-centred classes are more
creative than direct instruction classes. On the contrary, there is good
evidence that creative problem-solving occurs only if the relevant data are
so well-remembered that they can be recalled quickly. (Rosenshine and
Stevens, p. 378)
7. It is inhumane to subject little children to tedious
and stressful direct instruction schooling.
Most children enjoy good direct instruction. They like
drill and practice and seeing their skills improve. They take pride in
mastering difficult learning and doing good work. Visitors to good direct
instruction classrooms are struck by the children's attitudes of purpose and
engagement, as well as their pride and confidence in themselves.
By contrast, child-centred learning generates large
numbers of students who lack the academic skills and knowledge needed to lead
a productive and fulfilled life. That is inhumane.
8. Some children are so handicapped by social factors that
they can't be good scholars.
Educators quite rightly point out that many of their
students are handicapped by factors such as neglectful or abusive parents,
poverty or English as a second language. On the other hand, none of these
conditions is new. If we were able to question teachers from generations
past, they would surely confirm that their students also suffered from social
handicaps. During the Depression and afterwards, for example, poverty was the
norm. Mothers died in childbirth, fathers went to war. And immigrants have
been coming to our shores ever since John Cabot led the way in 1497. The
schools have always been challenged by hard-to-teach students.
The best hope for disadvantaged children is to get a solid
education. That they can overcome their handicaps and learn to be good
scholars is clearly shown by the existence of certain schools which manage to
bring a high percentage of disadvantaged students up to grade level or
better. Without exception, these schools use direct instruction. One example
is Wesley Elementary School in Texas where the students (mostly black,
inner-city children) outperform the rest of Houston. (Englemann, p. 134)
Child-centred learning is least effective with primary grade pupils and
students of any age who come from disadvantaged backgrounds. Disadvantaged
children can learn, but they require direct instruction.
9. Many children are learning-disabled.
In North America, estimates of the percentage of children
who are learning-disabled range from one percent to thirty percent. It has
proven very difficult to define learning disabilities or to establish which
students have them. In practice, a student is often designated
learning-disabled when he/she is well below grade level and no other
explanation can be found. This diagnosis is obviously not very helpful, not
least since it doesn't reveal what needs to be done to help the student. The
term serves only to shift the responsibility for a child's academic failures
from the school to the child.
The number of "learning-disabled" students has
been climbing steadily since the advent of child-centred learning. (In
Ontario, in 1980, 35,352 children were formally identified as
learning-disabled; by 1993, there were 81,815.) The vast majority of them
respond well to direct instruction, although many have become more difficult
to teach as a result of the bad habits, such as carelessness and disorganization,
created by their exposure to child-centred learning. In addition, many
students have developed behavioural problems or given up on themselves
because they have been told that they are disabled. A disproportionately-high
percentage of "learning-disabled" students drop out of school, turn
to crime or commit suicide.
10. Your expectations are too high.
International comparisons of academic achievement indicate
that Ontario students are outperformed by the students in European and
Pacific Rim countries ---and even by students in many other Canadian
provinces (Education and Training in Canada, pp. 11-22).
Curriculum comparisons tell the same story. For example,
the US's National Endowment for the Humanities compared national achievement
examinations in France, Germany, Japan, England and Wales and found that all
these countries were setting very high standards for the humanities.
(National Tests: What Other Countries Expect Their Students to Know, pp.
9-112) A comparison of the mathematics and science curricula of Manitoba with
those of Czechoslovakia found that the Czech curricula were two to four years
ahead of the Manitoba curricula. (Macek, pp. 14-19) Another study looked at
the Alberta mathematics, physics and chemistry curricula in relation to those
of Germany, Japan and Hungary. Once again, the Alberta curricula were
generally found to be behind those of the other countries. (International
Comparisons, pp.12-22) A fourth comparison examined the "gateway"
examinations given to average-achieving students in France, Germany and
Scotland. These exams demonstrate that a very high level of accomplishment is
required of all students in these countries. (What Secondary Students Abroad
Are Expected to Know, pp. 1-84)
There is no reason to believe that Canadian children are
less able than students in other countries. On the contrary, they are being
betrayed by a system that denies them the opportunity to learn as much as
their international counterparts. The requirement is not for parents to lower
their expectations, but rather for educators to raise theirs.
|
************************
The Concept of Need
Translated with permission from Jean Chouinard
Service national du RÉCIT en adaptation scolaire - January 2006
It is important to make the distinction between a need and the means used to address it; the means can be defined as the proposed or chosen solution to address a specific need.
The
need itself can be defined as a minimal condition to reach. It is expressed as
the capacity to reach a condition or to perform a task according to a required
minimal level of satisfaction.
The
concept of need is closely related to the concept of a situation of need. The
need arises from the presence of a gap between the fulfillment of this need and
the situation experienced by a person. This gap is called the situation of
need.
Thus,
the recognition of a situation of need gives rise to the need (to fulfill this
gap).
The situation of need
When
a person is in a condition below the required minimal criteria, this person is
considered to be in a situation of need.
The
situation of need can thus be defined as the gap between the situation
experienced by someone and the required minimal level of satisfaction. This gap
becomes the standard to recognize the existence of a situation of need. The
reaching of the minimal level determines the fulfillment or the satisfaction of
the need.
Once
the minimal level is reached, a person is not considered in a situation of need
anymore. The need can then be defined as the attainment of this level; the
disappearance of this gap.
In a
school environment, the situation of need experienced by a student expresses
itself as an inability, a great difficulty, or great restriction in performing
a given task, in attempting a given learning inquiry, or in reaching a given
competency according to an acceptable, identifiable and measurable minimal
level. The student’s need is then to reach this minimal level. Once the minimal
level is reached, the student will be able to perform the task according to an
acceptable minimal level.
A
person in a situation of need experiences insecurity, marginality, inequality,
and inequity.
The
situation of need, because it implies necessary and essential values, requires
an adapted or appropriate solution to narrow or eliminate the gap. A person who
has not reached an acceptable minimal level experiences a situation of
handicap.
The standardized situation
Once
the acceptable minimal level is reached, the improvement of the general state,
the situation or the condition of a person will tend towards standardization.
We refer to this as a normalized or standardized situation.
This
normalized or standardized situation corresponds to the gap between an
acceptable minimal situation and a situation referred to as normal, which is a
situation common to the average group, organization, community, or society. If
the person’s general state goes beyond the acceptable minimal level and if the
conditions of his or her existence continue to improve, his or her situation
will tend to become standardized. Once the average condition is reached, the
person will experience a standard condition.
A
person in a standard or normal condition experiences a feeling of well-being,
security, standardization, equity and equality of opportunities.
The optimal situation
The
optimal situation corresponds to the gap between a situation described as
normal and the best possible situation in a given context. If the person’s
general state goes beyond the normal situation as experienced by the average
group or community and if the conditions of his or her existence continue to
improve, given the context or resources and restraints of the situation, this
person will experience an optimal condition. He or she will then reach a level
of improvement and fulfillment.
The ideal situation
The
ideal situation corresponds to the gap between an optimal situation and a
situation without constraints. Once this level is reached, the person will
experience an ideal condition. By definition, the ideal condition is
unreachable.
The ideal condition involves things that are not necessary and accessory.
The ideal condition involves things that are not necessary and accessory.
10 Things Every Child Needs
Introduction:
At birth, an infant’s brain is only 25 percent of the size of an average adult’s brain. Incredibly, by age 3, a child’s brain has grown to 90 percent of that an adult's brain. During infancy and early childhood, children are flooded with new experiences that impact their brain development. The first 3 years of a child’s life offer parents and other caregivers an amazing opportunity to shape the child’s growth and form healthy habits that will last a lifetime.
At birth, an infant’s brain is only 25 percent of the size of an average adult’s brain. Incredibly, by age 3, a child’s brain has grown to 90 percent of that an adult's brain. During infancy and early childhood, children are flooded with new experiences that impact their brain development. The first 3 years of a child’s life offer parents and other caregivers an amazing opportunity to shape the child’s growth and form healthy habits that will last a lifetime.
1.
Encourage Interaction:
A child’s brain develops based on early experiences at home. The more interactions a child has, the healthier his/her development will be.
A child’s brain develops based on early experiences at home. The more interactions a child has, the healthier his/her development will be.
2. Offer
Physical Affection:
Physical affection communicates love to young children, which in turn fosters positive emotional growth.
Physical affection communicates love to young children, which in turn fosters positive emotional growth.
3.
Provide a Stable Relationship
Children who have a stable relationship with at least one caregiver learn at a faster pace, feel better about themselves, and make friends more easily.
Children who have a stable relationship with at least one caregiver learn at a faster pace, feel better about themselves, and make friends more easily.
4.
Maintain a Safe, Healthy Home
Creating a safe and healthy home and/or child care environment allows you to maximize children’s growth with minimal risk.
Creating a safe and healthy home and/or child care environment allows you to maximize children’s growth with minimal risk.
5.
Develop Strong Self Esteem
A strong sense of self is the foundation for healthy development in young children.
A strong sense of self is the foundation for healthy development in young children.
6.
Engage in Conversation
Communicating with your child/children not only shows love, but also encourages the development of his/her speech patterns.
Communicating with your child/children not only shows love, but also encourages the development of his/her speech patterns.
7. Make
Music
Music offers children an outlet for expression and stimulates brain development in specific areas including language and reasoning.
Music offers children an outlet for expression and stimulates brain development in specific areas including language and reasoning.
8. Make
Reading a Priority
Reading with children demonstrates a love for books and learning, and is a wonderful way for parents/caregivers and children to spend quality time together.
Reading with children demonstrates a love for books and learning, and is a wonderful way for parents/caregivers and children to spend quality time together.
9.
Promote Play
Playing provides children with an outlet for imagination and creativity and fosters healthy brain development.
Playing provides children with an outlet for imagination and creativity and fosters healthy brain development.
10.
Choose Quality Childcare
Since childcare settings can be a primary learning environment for children, the quality of the child care setting is very important.
Since childcare settings can be a primary learning environment for children, the quality of the child care setting is very important.
The
first 3 years of life are the most critical in terms of encouraging healthy
development. It is important for parents and caregivers to start as soon as
possible to build the foundation that will help their children reach their full
potential. The good news is that what every child needs—every parent and
caregiver can give. If we care for our children and give them what they need
early in life, their future will be full of possibilities.
Source: 10 Things Every Child Needs
DVD, Copyright 1997. Used with permission from the McCormick Foundation.
*********************
Action Research
in Education
1
Why should I use action research?
Because
you want to change your practice. You may be concerned that things might not be
going as you wish, or you may need to implement a new initiative but are unsure
how to do it effectively. What you want is a way of sorting out these concerns
that offers practical solutions, but that derives from the specific circumstances
of your practice. You know that someone else’s solution may have merit, but
that it is never quite right for the individual situation within which you
work. You know that practice is always influenced by context.
2
How does this qualify as research?
Because
the act of finding your solution makes you understand your practice better –
not only what you are doing, but also the factors that affect what you do.
Action research therefore has two aspects. The starting point is to sort out a
problem or issue in practice; to this extent an action researcher seeks a
solution. But the process can also be used as a deliberate attempt to
understand practice better – a traditional research attitude. What is most
important in both approaches is that you are open, honest and rigorous.
3
What do we mean by practice?
From
the perspective of action research, the best way to think about practice is the
way you carry out your professional actions. This is, of course, what you do,
but it is also why you think you should be doing things the way you do. You
will hear of the ‘theory-practice divide’; action research as an approach cuts
across this divide, encouraging a practitioner to consider both aspects as part
of a single whole.
The
aim of an action researcher is to bring about development in his or her
practice by analysing existing practice and identifying elements for change.
The process is founded on the gathering of evidence on which to make informed
rather than intuitive judgements and decisions. Perhaps the most important
aspect of action research is that the process enhances teachers’ professional
development through the fostering of their capability as professional knowledge
makers, rather than simply as professional knowledge users. In an age of
centralisation and the proliferation of national guidelines and strategies,
action research can help teachers feel in control of their own professional
situation.
4
What is action research about?
Action
research is a practical approach to professional inquiry in any social
situation. The examples in this component relate to education and are therefore
of particular relevance to teachers or lecturers engaged in their daily contact
with children or students. But professional practice need not be teaching: it
may be management or administration in a school or college, or it may be in an
unrelated area, such as medicine or the social services. The context for
professional inquiry might change, but the principles and processes involved in
action research are the same, regardless of the nature of the practice.
Indeed,
action research did not arise in education (see Lewin 1948), but was applied to
the development of teaching as its potential was identified. Of particular
influence was the work of Lawrence Stenhouse, who famously advocated that
‘curriculum research and development ought to belong to the teacher’
(Stenhouse, 1975 p. 142). He was most adamant that ‘it is not enough that
teachers’ work should be studied: they need to study it themselves’ (p.143).
As its name suggests, action research concerns
actors – those people carrying out their professional actions from day to day -
and its purpose is to understand and to improve those actions. It is about
trying to understand professional action from the inside; as a result, it is
research that is carried out by practitioners on their own practice, not (as in
other forms of research), done by someone on somebody else’s practice. Action
research in education is grounded in the working lives of teachers, as they
experience them.
Carr
and Kemmis (1986) describe action research as being about:
the
improvement of practice;
the
improvement of the understanding of practice;
the
improvement of the situation in which the practice takes place.
The
notion of improvement can be problematic when viewed from the outside. One
person’s improvement can be another person’s deterioration. It depends on the
beliefs and values underpinning the individual’s perspective. Paradoxically,
however, this uncertainty is perhaps the one truth of professional practice.
Practice is contingent upon the practitioners’ intentions, values and beliefs
and the situation in which those elements are given form. Educational research
through action research does not produce understanding that has universal
truth; it is about me in the here and now understanding what I can do to ensure
my values and intentions are realised in my teaching situation. If my
deliberations produce an understanding which helps me, then I can offer it to
others to try. In this sense, action research can produce generalisations about
practice, but such generalisations are only part of a wider search for
understanding. They are not directly applicable beyond the contingencies of my
practice. Hamilton (1981) encapsulated
this when he reflected that ‘to generalise is to render a public account of the
past, present or future in a form that can be ‘tested’ through further action
and inquiry’.
The
reality of practice in a social situation means that it is impossible to
separate the three areas Carr and Kemmis mention. Focus on one may give
insights into the others, for it is frequently impossible to improve teaching
without understanding the dynamics of the situation in which that teaching is
carried out. Children, students, classrooms and colleges all vary, as do the
management structures, schemes of work, course programmes and assessment
procedures which impose structure on them. Practice is not easily packaged!
Some writers about action research, Carr and Kemmis amongst them, have explored
the potentially political nature of analysis within the process that follows
from this realisation and have promoted action research as a means of social
change. They see action research as being ‘emancipatory’, producing an
understanding of the workplace that is empowering professionally.
Action
research can thus be used to:
understand
one’s own practice;
understand
how to make one’s practice better;
understand
how to accommodate outside change in one’s practice;
understand
how to change the outside in order to make one’s practice better.
5
How does action research work?
At
its heart, action research involves the careful monitoring of planned change in
practice. A decision is taken that a particular action may either yield
improvements or provide information as to the nature of the teaching situation.
The action is thus used as a research tool. Both elements of action and
research are of equal prominence in the approach. It can be thought of as:
********************
This work is concerning the functions of language. This
global practice has been made to the subject of Linguistics and in order to
learn the functions of language at university level.
3. MAIN FUNCTIONS OF LANGUAGE
There
have been many, sometimes conflicting attempts to classify the main functions
of language (macrofunctions) and the elements of communication. The theory I am
going to follow is one of the clearest and most influential, which was
formulated by the linguist Roman Jakobson (1960), and further developed by Dell
Hymes (1962). (The terms used here are based on both accounts, without exactly
following either). I am going to begin by identifying the elements of
communication:
THE ADDRESSER is the person who originates the message. This is
usually the same as the person who is sending the message, but not always, as
in the case of messenger, spokespeople and town criers.
THE ADDRESSEE is
the person to whom the message is addressed. This is usually the person who
receives the message, but not necessarily so, as in the case of intercepted
letters, bugged telephone calls, and eavesdropping.
THE CHANNEL is
the medium through which the message travels: sound waves, marks on paper,
telephone wires or word processor screens.
· THE MESSAGE FORM is
the particular grammatical and lexical choices of the message.
THE TOPIC is
the information carried in the message.
THE CODE is
the language or dialect used (Swedish, Yorkshire English…)
THE SETTING is
the social and physical context.
In Jakobson’s model,
each of the elements of the communication process are associated with one of
the six macro-functions of language he proposed. We are going to analyse them.
Imagine the sentence “I
am very happy that Tom Cruise is coming to the party”. It centres upon the
addresser, who communicates his inner states and emotions. This type of
macro-function is known as THE EMOTIVE FUNCTION.
Imagine the sentence ”Shut
up and do your homework!”. Attention is focused upon the addressee, seeking to
affect his behaviour. This function is known as THE
DIRECTIVE FUNCTION.
Take a sentence like “Clementine, can you hear me? Are you still on the
phone?” These types of sentences serve to open the channel or
to check that the channel is working for social or practical reasons. Speech is
used not to convey thoughts but to create ties of union by mere exchange of
words. This type of macro-function focuses on the channel and it is called THE
PHATIC FUNCTION. Phatic communication is speech for the sake of social
context. Greetings are part of it, since they serve to start conversations,
setting the tone and helping establish the relationship between the speakers.
Advertising slogans like
“Beanz means Heinz”,“Revilla, ¡qué maravilla! or tongue-twisters show that the particular form
chosen is the essence of the message, that is, the form is more important than
the message itself. This type of function centres upon the message form and is
called THE POETIC FUNCTION.
Sentences such as “The earth turns around the sun”are used to carry information. They focus on the topic
and this use is known as THE REFERENCTIAL FUNCTION.
A sentence like “What does this word mean?” or “This bone is known as
the femur” focuses attention upon the code itself, to clarify or
negotiate it. This function is known as THE
METALINGUISTIC FUNTION.
Finally, the sentences “Let’s
start the lecture” or “Right” are used to create a particular kind of communication.
They focus on the context and develop the function called THE
CONTEXTUAL FUNCTION.
Related to the functions
of language is the notion of functional development. When a crying baby
realises that by controlling her cries and producing them at will rather than
automatically, she can influence the behaviour of her parents, she has
progressed from the emotive to the directive function. Phatic communication
also begins very early. The poetic function too is apparent at an early stage:
when young children latch on to a phrase and repeat it endlessly, without
conveying any information. The referential function gains its prominence only
at a later stage, and the metalinguistic function also comes later; these are
the functions on which a considerable amount of attention is lavished at
school. Surprisingly, considering this course of development, a good deal of
foreign language teaching begins with the metalinguistic function, by
explicitly stating the rules of grammar.
If we accept this
categorization of language into a small number of macrofuntions, we might then
go on to subdivide each function and specify more delicate categories or
microfunctions. A breakdown of the directive function for example may look
something like this:
It
is easy to imagine a similar division of any of the other six macrofunctions,
resulting in a list of functions used as the basis of functional language
courses. Functional courses set out to list the purposes for which students
might wish to use language, and then to teach them to do so.
Jakobson and Hymes’
theory was used as the basis for future theories on the functions of language.
Whilst linguists have sought to understand how, as speakers, people are able to
produce an infinite number of sentences given a finite set of rules, philosophers
have tried to explain how an infinite number of sentences may reflect a finite
set of functions. These theories belong to the field of semantics. One of the
most important ones is known as speech act theory. Philosophers such as Austin
(1962) and Searle (1969) argued that utterances could be classified into a set
of speech act functions. They reasoned that since the number of things people
do with words is limited, people ought to be able to assign functions to
utterances. Hence, people do not only produce utterances containing grammatical
structures and words, they perform actions via those utterances, which are
generally called speech acts such as apology or request. The speaker and hearer
are usually helped in this process by the circumstances surrounding the
utterance. These utterances, including others, are called the speech event. It
is also necessary to bear in mind that speech is never completely context free
due to factors such as status, age, gender, and so on, which determine social
constraints.
Regarding
speech acts, the action performed by producing an utterance will consist of
three related acts. There is a locutionary act, which is the basic act of
utterance, or producing a meaningful linguistic expression. Mostly we do not
just produce well-formed utterances with no purpose. We form an utterance with
some kind of function in mind. This is the second dimension, or the
illocutionary act. An example is I’ve just made some coffee. I might utter it to make a statement, an offer, or for
some other communicative purpose. This is known as the illocutionary force of
the utterance. Moreover, we create an utterance with a function intending it to
have an effect. This effect is the perlocutionary act. Depending on the
circumstance, you will utter an utterance on the assumption that the hearer
will recognize the effect you intended, for example to account for the
wonderful smell of the coffee or to get the hearer to drink some. This is known
as the perlocutionary effect. Then, the same utterance or locutionary act can
have different illocutionary and perlocutionary forces.
One of the most widely
used taxonomies of speech act types is that proposed by Searle (1976). There
are 5 types of general functions performed by speech acts:
Directives (Requests).
Those speech acts that speakers use to get someone else to do
something. They are commands, orders, requests, suggestions; positive or
negatives. Some verbs include: suggest,prohibit, order… for example: “Don´t touch that!”The imperative
and polite imperative are usually taught in foreign language teaching. The
relationship between the roles of the speaker and addressee acts as a
constraint and if these constraints are ignored or unknown, offence may be
taken.
Commissives. Those kinds
of speech acts that speakers use to commit themselves to some future action.
They express what the speaker intends. They are promises, threats, refusals,
pledges… Commissives are also language and culture bound differing across
status, situation and according to some gender. Some verbs used are: guarantee,swear, promise…. An example is: “I’ll be back”
Representatives. A
speaker expresses his/her belief that the propositional content of the
utterance is true, so modality is an important element here. He may express an
attitude of belief using several types of acts:asserting, predicting, describing, advising...
Some verbs include: affirm, advise, suggest… for example: “the earth is flat”.
Expressives. Also called
“evaluatives”, they are utterances that have an expressive function, stating
what the speaker feels. They express psychological states and can be statements
of pleasure, pain, likes, dislikes, joy or sorrow. They are about the speaker’s
experience. Some verbs include: greet, apologise,compliment… for
example, “Congratulations!” Many
of the stereotypes regarding cultures are bound up with expressives.
Declaratives and
Performatives. The issuer informs objectively about the external reality or
about his/her ideas about it. They, when uttered, bring about a new state of being,
for example when a priest says, “I pronounce you man and wife” the
status of the couple changes. The person who utters it must have the power to
do so.
The above five speech
acts can be described as direct speech acts since there is a match between sentences
meaning and speaker meaning, i.e. that the form of the utterance coincides with
its function. However, much of what people say is not direct. People often use
statements to make requests and even to give orders. For
instance, the statement “Today there is a nice film on, isn’t there?”
according to Searle would be a representative. However, the listener might also
attach an extra, indirect meaning, such us “Can you switch on the TV?” In
this case it is performing an indirect speech act, when there is an indirect
relationship between a structure and a function. In English, indirect speech
acts are generally associated with greater politeness than direct speech acts.
*****************************
Outside Classroom
Language Learning in Indonesia - A Project Paper
An
Integrated Approach to Teaching Literature in the EFL Classroom
Christine
Savvidou
christine.savvidou [at] cytanet.com.cy
Intercollege (Cyprus)
christine.savvidou [at] cytanet.com.cy
Intercollege (Cyprus)
This article considers the reasons why teachers
often regard literature as inappropriate to the language classroom. These
views reflect the historic separation between the study of language and the
study of literature, which has led to the limited role of literature in the
language classroom. However, the use of literary texts can be a powerful
pedagogic tool. This article describes various approaches to teaching
literature and provides a rationale for an integrated approach to teaching
literature in the language classroom based on the premise that literature is
language and language can indeed be literary.
Introduction
As teachers
of English as a Foreign Language our main concern is to help learners acquire
communicative competence. For this reason we tend to focus on teaching standard
forms of linguistic expression. However, despite acquiring linguistic accuracy,
it is apparent that EFL speakers still have difficulties in comprehending the
nuances, creativity and versatility which characterise even standard and
transactional forms of English, as these humorous public notices demonstrate:
We take your
bags and send them in all directions. – Copenhagen airline ticket office
Would you
like to ride on your own ass? – Advertisement for donkey rides in Thailand
You are
invited to take advantage of the chambermaid. – Japanese hotel
Communicative
competence is more than acquiring mastery of structure and form. It also
involves acquiring the ability to interpret discourse in all its social and
cultural contexts. For this reason, the use of literature in the EFL classroom
can provide a powerful pedagogic tool in learners’ linguistic development.
Focusing
on Literature
Language,
both spoken and written, comes in a variety of discourse types and, as teachers
of language, we attempt to introduce our learners to as many of these as
possible.The variety and types of discourse are perhaps best represented by
Kinneavy’s communication triangle (1983). This classification of discourse
types includes expressive, which focuses on personal
expression (letters, diaries, etc.); transactional, which focuses on both the
reader and the message (advertising, business letters, editorials,
instructions, etc.); and poetic, which focuses on form and language
(drama, poetry, novels, short stories, etc.). Indeed, all these discourse
types already play a significant role in teaching various aspects of language
such as vocabulary and structure, or testing learners’ comprehension.
However,
there is often reluctance by teachers, course designers and examiners to
introduce unabridged and authentic texts to the EFL syllabus. There is a
general perception that literature is particularly complex and inaccessible for
the foreign language learner and can even be detrimental to the process of
language learning (Or, 1995). Indeed, it is difficult to imagine teaching the
stylistic features of literary discourse to learners who have a less than
sophisticated grasp of the basic mechanics of English language. This perception
is also borne out by research (Akyel and Yalçin, 1990) which shows that the
desire to broaden learners’ horizons through exposure to classic literature
usually has disappointing results. The reasons why teachers often consider
literature inappropriate to the language classroom may be found in the common
beliefs held about literature and literary language. Firstly, the creative use of language in
poetry and prose often deviates from the conventions and rules which govern
standard, non-literary discourse, as in the case of poetry where grammar and
lexis may be manipulated to serve orthographic or phonological features of the
language. Secondly, the reader requires greater effort to interpret
literary texts since meaning is detached from the reader’s immediate social
context; one example is that the “I” in literary discourse may not be the same
person as the writer.
The result
is that the reader’s “interpretative procedures” (Widdowson, 1975) may become
confused and overloaded. What this means is that the reader has to infer,
anticipate and negotiate meaning from within the text to a degree that is not
required in non-literary discourse. Thus, in our efforts to teach our learners’
communicative competence there is a tendency to make use of texts which focus
on the transactional and expressive forms of writing with the exclusion or
restriction of poetic forms of language – i.e. literature. There is a
perception that the use of literary discourse deflects from the straightforward
business of language learning, i.e. knowledge of language structure, functions
and general communication.
Why Teach
Literature in the Language Classroom?
The
classification of discourse types in this way would seem to suggest that there
are distinct differences between literary and non-literary discourse. This
reflects a historic divergence between language and literature, which Short
(1996) refers to as a ‘border dispute over territory’ between linguists and
literary critics. This divergence has resulted in the teaching of the two
subjects as ‘disconnected pedagogic practices’ (Carter and McRae, 1996:
xxiv). This is not to say there is no difference between literary and
non-literary discourse; however, Carter and Nash (1990) suggest that rather
than perceiving literary discourse as separate and remote from non-literary
discourse, we ought to consider the variety of text types along a continuum
with some being more literary than others. This view is part of the idea that
the separation of literature from language is a false dualism since literature
is language and language can indeed be literary. It is not difficult to find
instances of standard transactional forms of discourse which make use of a
whole array of literary devices. Headlines and advertisements are common
examples of discourse which exploits literary language. The following examples
make explicit use of alliteration, assonance, register, imagery, ellipsis and
rhythm - stylistic devices which are more commonly associated with literature
than with standard, transactional language.
Headline: King Khan Goes for Gold (The Scotsman,
28.08.2004)
Headline: Bookies' bonanza comes at a price (The
Scotsman, 28.08.2004)
Advertisement: You'll never put a better bit of
butter on your knife - Country Life butter
Advertisement: Have a break, have a Kit Kat -
Kit Kat chocolate
Advertisement: Put a tiger in your tank –
ESSO
The
boundaries which are thought to exist between literary and non-literary
discourse are not so distinct. Indeed, as Widdowson (1979) suggests, the
procedures which are used to interpret literary discourse are essentially the
same for interpreting any type of discourse.
Approaches
to Teaching Literature
Having
decided that integrating literature into the EFL syllabus is beneficial to the learners’ linguistic
development, we need to select an approach which best serves the needs of EFL learners and
the syllabus. Carter and Long (1991) describe the rationale for the use of the
three main approaches to the teaching of literature:
The
Cultural Model
This model
represents the traditional approach to teaching literature. Such a model
requires learners to explore and interpret the social, political, literary and
historical context of a specific text. By using such a model to teach
literature we not only reveal the universality of such thoughts and ideas but
encourage learners to understand different cultures and ideologies in relation
to their own. This model is largely rejected by those in TEFL since not only
does it tend to be teacher-centred but there is little opportunity for extended
language work.
The
Language Model
The most
common approach to literature in the EFL classroom is what Carter and Long
(1991) refer to as the ‘language-based approach’. Such an approach enables
learners to access a text in a systematic and methodical way in order to
exemplify specific linguistic features e.g. literal and figurative language,
direct and indirect speech. This approach lends itself well to the repertoire
of strategies used in language teaching - cloze procedure, prediction
exercises, jumbled sentences, summary writing, creative writing and role play
- which all form part of the repertoire of EFL activities used by
teachers to deconstruct literary texts in order to serve specific linguistic
goals. Carter and McRae (1996) describe this model as taking a ‘reductive’
approach to literature. These activities are disconnected from the literary
goals of the specific text in that they can be applied to any text. There is
little engagement of the learner with the text other than for purely linguistic
practice; literature is used in a rather purposeless and mechanistic way in
order to provide for a series of language activities orchestrated by the
teacher.
The
Personal Growth Model
This model
attempts to bridge the cultural model and the language model by focusing on the
particular use of language in a text, as well as placing it in a specific
cultural context. Learners are encouraged to express their opinions, feelings
and opinions and make connections between their own personal and cultural
experiences and those expressed in the text. Another aspect of this model
is that it helps learners develop knowledge of ideas and language – content and
formal schemata – through different themes and topics. This function relates to
theories of reading (Goodman, 1970) which emphasise the interaction of the
reader with the text. As Cadorath and Harris point out (1998:188) "text itself has no meaning, it only
provides direction for the reader to construct meaning from the reader's own
experience". Thus, learning is said to take place when readers are able to
interpret text and construct meaning on the basis of their own experience.
These three
approaches to teaching literature differ in terms of their focus on the text:
firstly, the text is seen as a cultural artefact; secondly, the text is used as
a focus for grammatical and structural analysis; and thirdly, the text is the
stimulus for personal growth activities. What is needed is an approach to
teaching literature in the EFL classroom which attempts to integrate these
elements in a way that makes literature accessible to learners and beneficial
for their linguistic development.
Rationale
for an Integrated Model for Teaching Literature
According to
Duff and Maley (1990), the main reasons for integrating these elements are
linguistic, methodological and motivational. Linguistically, by using a wide range of
authentic texts we introduce learners to a variety of types and difficulties of
English language.Methodologically, literary discourse sensitises readers to the
processes of reading e.g. the use of schema, strategies for intensive and
extensive reading etc. And, lastly,motivationally, literary texts prioritise
the enjoyment of reading since, as Short and Candlin assert (1986), ‘if
literature is worth teaching...then it seems axiomatic that it is the response
to literature itself which is important’. Interpretation of texts by learners
can bring about personal responses from readers by touching on significant and
engaging themes. An integrated model is a linguistic approach which utilises
some of the strategies used in stylistic analysis, which explores texts,
literary and non-literary, from the perspective of style and its relationship
to content and form. This involves the systematic and detailed analysis of the
stylistic features of a text – vocabulary, structure, register etc. in
order to find out ‘not just what a text means, but also how it comes to mean
what it does’ (Short, 1996). This suggested model (O’Brien, 1999)
integrates linguistic description with interpretation of the text although for
the benefit of the foreign language learners it is not as technical, rigorous
or analytical as the stylistics approach. With the careful selection of the
text, it can be adapted for all levels.
Stage 1:
Preparation and Anticipation
This stage
elicits learners’ real or literary experience of the main themes and context of
text.
Stage 2: Focusing
Learners
experience the text by listening and or reading and focusing on specific
content in the text.
Stage 3:
Preliminary Response
Learners
give their initial response to the text - spoken or written
Stage 4:
Working at it - I
Focus is on
comprehending the first level of meaning through intensive reading.
Stage 5:
Working at it - II
Focus is on
analysis of the text at a deeper level and exploring how the message is
conveyed through overall structure and any special uses of language - rhythm,
imagery, word choice etc.
Stage 6:
Interpretation and Personal Response
The focus of
this final step is on increasing understanding, enhancing enjoyment of the text
and enabling learners to come to their own personal interpretation of the text.
This is based on the rationale for the personal growth model.
Conclusion
There are
many benefits to using literature in the EFL classroom. Apart from offering a
distinct literary world which can widen learners’ understanding of their own
and other cultures, it can create opportunities for personal expression as well
as reinforce learners’ knowledge of lexical and grammatical structure.
Moreover, an integrated approach to the use of literature offers learners
strategies to analyse and interpret language in context in order to recognize
not only how language is manipulated but also why. An integrated approach to the use of literature in the language
classroom offers foreign language learners the opportunity to develop not only
their linguistic and communicative skills but their knowledge about language in
all its discourse types. The use of literary texts in the language classroom
can be a potentially powerful pedagogic tool
Teaching Children Geometric
Concepts
Filling empty containers provides opportunities to
explore geometric concepts, such as “more or less” and volume, and to apply
measurement skills.
What You Need
★ Measuring cup
★ Four large glasses of equal size and shape
★ Water
What to Do
★ On a table, put the glasses in a row and fill
them with water as follows: 1/3 cup, 1/2 cup, 3/4 cup, 1 cup. Ask your child
questions that encourage her to compare, estimate and think about measurement.
Ask, for example, “Which glass has more water? Which has less?”
★ Pour more water into one of the glasses to
make it equal to the amount of water in another glass. Move the glasses around
so that the glasses that have the same amount of water are not next to each
other. Ask your child to find the glasses that have the same amount of water.
★ Help your child to do math in her head. Ask
questions such as, “If I have four cups of water and I need seven, how many
more do I need to pour?”
Geometry: Basic Concepts
The basic idea here is to
get students to think about some of the basic concepts of geometry. So this is
working on basic foundations of geometry. As always, the goal is to have the
students think. You might worry about correct answers. People do geometry
without correct answers, and the goal is understanding, not memorizing a
correct answer. So let them think, and be confident that they will sooner or
later work out the correct answers for themselves.
Essentially,
when you use this method, you can get students to spend a half hour or more
thinking about a rectangle (assuming they cannot define it correctly). How else
could you get students to spend that long thinking about a rectangle?
This
takes skill on your part to realize what is wrong with a definition. Also, the
exercise could be undermined by someone knowing the correct definition.
Usually, if there is a student with the correct definition, there will be other
students with a wrong definition, and you can work with those. Also, you can go
on to harder things to define if the first is too easy (but I can usually spend
almost a whole session on rectangles).
Wrapper
You can treat this as a
standard exercise in definition. If you do, a useful prerequisite is the exercise on defining common words, such as wall and
bottle. This is a general skill, and very useful. (Definitions of mathematical
terms are more likely to have the problem of being circular.)
The
"call-an-alien" wrapper works better. I start out teaching my class,
but before I can hardly start, I get a call. I pull out my phone (I have a real
phone, though it is not working). It is some aliens. They are building a space
ship, they are following instructions, and they want to know what a rectangle
is. They want the class's opinion, not mine. I say I will call back.
The
class then constructs a definition. I call the aliens back, tell them the
definition, then return to my lecture. But before I can get even started ...
the phone rings again.
Don't
ask me why, but fifth graders usually do not have a good definition of
rectangle. (And, you get to choose which definition you tell the aliens.) If
the definition is too broad, the aliens are calling back to make sure that a
particular shape is a rectangle (when in fact it is not). If the definition is
too narrow, the aliens are calling back to make sure that a particular shape is
not a rectangle (when in fact it is). If there is any useful way that the
definition can be misunderstood, the aliens have probably misunderstood it.
There
is a Bob Newhart routine of creating humor from an imaginary phone
conversation. I use that. "Yes, you want to know what a rectangle is. I
can tell you......I see, you don't want my opinion. Can I ask why not.....well,
yes, I was wrong about the gasoline. How was I supposed to know it would
explode?....yeah, I was wrong on that too....and that too....okay, okay, I will
ask the class." This style of humor suits my personality, so I am just
noting the possibilities, not making any promises.
Of
course, when I did this one-on-one with a student who liked faeries, I used
faeries instead of aliens.
This
wrapper is much more than just a funny phone conversation. It in a sense
completely restructures the learning milleau (to be much more like surfin'
math). Without the aliens, you are the one telling them that there definition
is wrong. You then provide an example showing them why their definition is
wrong. The milleau is right-wrong, they are never right, and you are the bad
guy.
With
the aliens as a wrapper, the aliens become the bad guy. And no one is saying
their definition is wrong, the aliens are just asking a question which happens
to point out a deficiency in the definition. It is not an abstract exercise --
construct a definition that pleases the teacher -- it is an effort to
communicate.
You
have to say that the telephone won't communicate pictures. There are real
problems with trying to communicate by example, but this assignment is to
define the rectangle using words.
Define a Rectangle
I start by asking students
to define a rectangle.
If
they mention that two sides must be equal and two other sides must be equal,
then I draw a diamond.
If
they mention that two opposite sides must be equal and the other two opposite
sides must be equal, then I draw a parallelogram.
If
they say that the sides can't be slanted, I draw a rectangle that is tilted at
an angle.
Students
usually have, as their main concern, differentiating the rectangle from the
square. I think mathematically the square is a rectangle, but I usually allow
the students this differentiation.
The
correct answer is going to be a four-sided figure where all of the angles are
right angles. (Another acceptable definition is a 4-sided figure where all the
angles are equal.) If you wanted to explore, you could have one of the aliens
wonder what if only three of the angles are right angles -- is that still a rectangle?
Define a Right Angle
So, sooner or later, they
find criterion of right angle and have a good definition of rectangle. That
raises the question, what is a right angle?
A
right angle can be defined as a 90 degree angle. This is a perfectly correct
definition. However, it does not explain why we have a special name for this
particular angle. In other words, how come we have a special name for a 90
degree angle, and no special name for a 76% angle?
Your
students might note that we do have a name for the 76% angle --acute angle. However, there are many
different-sized angles that can be called acute; in contrast, there is only one
right-angle. Furthermore, the idea that we have names for angles that are
smaller than a right angle (acute angles) and angles that are larger than a
right angle (obtuse angles) re-emphasizes the point that there is something
special about right angles.
So,
while the "90 degree" answer is correct, give your students the task
of finding a definition that captures the specialness of the right angle.
Saying
that only a right angle makes a rectangle is not correct. Once they have
defined rectangle in terms of right angle, that would be circular. Also, the
right angle is more fundamental than the rectangle.)
The
answer, I think, has to be something about splitting the straight angle. This
can be framed in terms of drawing a line from a point on a straight line, such
that the two angles that are made are equal. It would be equally valid to
define the right angle as 1/4 of a whole angle (the 360 degree angle).
So
they finally find a good definition of right angle. That raises the question,
what is an angle?
Define an Angle
This was more difficult for
bright sixth graders than I expected. I think the essence of a correct answer
will be a point from which two lines start. (This point is called the vertex.)
If
you want to make this more difficult, which I think is worthwhile, the two
lines are what are called rays.
These are lines that start at a point and go to infinity. They can be
contrasted to line segments, which are bounded at both ends. The lines of an
angle, technically speaking, are not line segments. If they were, different
lengths of lines would form different angles. A ray is also different from a
line which goes to infinity in both directions. If two lines that go to
infinity will make 4 angles (or no angle at all if the lines are parallel).
As
always, it is worthwhile to consider special cases. Does the straight angle
(180 degrees) fit their definition? The straight angle looks like a line, but I
think to be a straight angle there.
Define a Straight Line
A concept is defined in
terms of more fundamental concepts. At some point, a concept might be so
fundamental that it can't be defined -- I really don't know. And line might be
at this level. In any case, it is very difficult to define a (straight) line. I
thought about it for a few weeks before finding an answer I liked.
One
part of the definition is that a line has no width. I did not focus on this
aspect.
The
other part is saying what it means for a line to be straight. You students will
probably say, like my dictionary, that a straight line is not curved. But then
what does it mean to be curved? My dictionary defines a curved line as not
straight, but your students will realize that's circular.
Another
attractive idea, which I think is ultimately useful, is that a line keeps going
in the same direction. But what does it mean to keep going in the same
direction? If you drive to school, and you are always trying to go to school,
do you travel in a straight line?
Unfortunately,
some students might have heard that a line is the shortest distance between two
points, and they might try to use that as a definition. I say
"unfortunately" because there is no thinking exercise or exploration
if they just report a definition they have heard. Fortunately, I don't think
this definition will work. The problem is defining distance without using the
concept of a straight line.
My
answer is this. Define a segment as always going in the same direction if you
can move the segment up any distance and everything will still be aligned. This
extends the segment, in the same direction. Only two types of segments fit this
definition -- straight lines and the arcs of circles. A straight line does not
meet or cross itself when extended.
Circle
I use the above as a
natural sequence. There is one other geometry concept that might be profitable
to explore, and that is the circle. If the student remembers the standard
definition, that is probably the end of the story. If the student does not,
then there can be profitable exploration.
There
would be different definitions. As you might guess, my favored definition is
the extension of a segment that always travels in the same direction but isn't
a straight line. The standard definition is a set of points all equal distance
from a point (the center of the circle). Another possibility is equal-lengthed
diameters, though that requires defining a diameter in a way independent of the
idea of a circle. There is also a sense that circles are enclosed by squares
while ellipses are enclosed by rectangles, but that is at best very difficult
to turn into a working definition.
I
should note that to define an object, mathematicians often make reference to
someone that isn't there. For example, they might define a circle in terms of
its center. I suspect that constructions are a way of avoiding the fundamental
nature of the thing to be defined. But otherwise, it is good that the student
thinks to use them.
**********************
Effective
language in teaching mathematics:
How to Teach Math Effectively
Effective math teaching takes time and
preparation
While it is true that mathematics
can be difficult and confusing with its many facts and formulas, it is also
true that it can be made much simpler if it is taught in the right way and with
the proper attitude. As a teacher, remember that your attitude toward the
subject will be evident to the students, and negative attitudes will often be transferred
to the students. Approach the subject with eagerness, and your students will be
more likely to follow your lead.
Other People Are Reading
1
Set
your goals for the class hour, the week, the month and the school year. Is your
goal simply to complete the textbook, or is it to teach the students everything
they can learn no matter how far you get in the textbook? Once you've
established your goals, let the students know what is expected of them.
2
Set
up realistic problems. Many of the workbook problems in today's curriculum are
based on things your students probably perceive as irrelevant. Instead,
substitute these problems with topics that interest them. For example: If the
local shoe store is running a 40 percent off sale on all athletic shoes and the
pair you want is regularly $49, how much will the sale price be?
3
Explain
the "how" and the "why." Don't get so bogged down on
teaching the procedure that you forget to teach the concept. Make sure the
students understand what they're doing as well as how to do it.
4
Use
various teaching methods throughout your math class. Charts, videos, songs and
hands-on activities are a welcome reprieve from lectures and worksheets.
5
Incorporate
mathematics into other subjects throughout the course of the day to help
students see the uses of math outside of math class. Math concepts can easily
be added into science, history and even English lessons.
**********************************
Topics
for environmental studies for outdoor activities:
Nature, the Environment and
Outdoor Studies
The Bachelor’s degree in
Nature, the Enviroment and Outdoor Studies provides students with
practical skills, knowledge, attitudes and experiences related to nature, the
environment, culture and outdoor activities. The main emphasis will be on
acquiring a solid grasp of basic skills in simple outdoor activities in a
variety of natural environments; on gaining practical experience with
pedagogical problem-approaches associated with teaching; and acquiring
specialised insight into topics related to outdoor activities, society,
culture, nature and the environment.
Students
will develop an understanding of the relationship between living organisms and
environmental conditions, and especially humankind’s place in nature. The study
programme will provide students with solid practical skills in outdoor
activities. It lays the foundation for an active commitment to nature and
outdoor activities, with particular focus on outdoor activities as a
phenomenon, their history, development and management. Students will acquire
extensive skills to prepare them for work related to the mediation of outdoor
activities, natural sciences topics and cultural traditions.
The
study programme consists of Nature and the environment,
1-year programme, and the first two years of the Bachelor’s degree in Outdoors,
Culture and Nature Guiding. The study programme focuses on the questions concerning
conflicts and increased strain on the local environment as a result of land
use. Students will gain an understanding of the important natural environments
and areas for recreation and outdoor life. They will achieve considerable
competence as guides in their choice of outdoor activity, and gain a foundation
for reflection concerning attitudes and experiences associated with outdoor
activities, society, culture and nature. In the second and third years, the
programme includes, respectively, roughly 50 and 35 supervised days in the
outdoors, 15/20 outings; in addition to 12 and 16 days practical experience.
Career
opportunities/Further studies
Successful
candidates may find employment in public administration, schools (primary,
secondary with/sports specialisation, folk high schools and school camps),
health and rehabilitation, tourism, industry, consultancy and voluntary
organisations.
The study programme also qualifies for admission to the Master’s degree programmes,Physical Education, Sport and Outdoor Life Studies and Environmental Health and Science.
The study programme also qualifies for admission to the Master’s degree programmes,Physical Education, Sport and Outdoor Life Studies and Environmental Health and Science.
Outdoor education
Outdoor
education usually refers to organized learning that takes place in the outdoors. Outdoor education programs sometimes involve residential or journey-based experiences in which students participate in a variety of
adventurous challenges in the form ofoutdoor activities such as hiking, climbing, canoeing, ropes courses and group
games. Forest Schools and the John Muir Award are amongst organizations
which encourage and provide opportunities for outdoor learning. Outdoor
education draws upon the philosophy, theory, and practices of experiential education and environmental education.
Definitions
Outdoor
education can be simply defined as experiential learning in, for, or about the outdoors. The term ‘outdoor
education’, however, is used broadly to refer to a range of organized
activities that take place in a variety of ways in predominantly outdoor
environments. Common definitions of outdoor education are difficult to achieve
because interpretations vary according to culture, philosophy, and local
conditions.
Outdoor
education is often referred to as synonymous with adventure
education, adventure programming, and outdoor learning, outdoor school, adventure therapy, adventure recreation, adventure tourism, expeditionary learning, challenge education, experiential education,environmental education, Forest schools and wilderness education.
Consensus about the meaning of these terms is also difficult to achieve.
However, outdoor education often uses or draws upon these related elements
and/or informs these areas. The hallmark of outdoor education is its focus on
the "outdoor" side of this education; whereas adventure
education would focus on the adventure
side and environmental education would focus on environmental.
Wilderness education involves expeditions into wilderness "where man is
but a visitor." For more information, see Outdoor education definitions (Wikibooks).
Education outside the classroom
"Education
outside the classroom" describes school curriculum learning, other than
with a class of students sitting in a room with a teacher and books. It
encompasses biology field trips and searching for insects in
the school garden, as well as indoor activities like observing stock control in
a local shop, or visiting a museum. It is a concept currently
enjoying a revival because of the recognition of benefits from the more active
style. The Education and Skills Committee[2] of the House of Commons of the United Kingdom has reported that it brings
history and art to life, develops social skills, and clearly enhances geography
and science.,[3] while DfES has prepared
practical guidelines for outdoor activities.[4]
Despite
the evidence supporting an extension of outdoor learning for children, there
are a number of obstacles in the way. One of these obstacles is risk aversion amongst teachers, parents and
others, raising reluctance to such diverse and physical tasks. The journalist
Tim Gill has written about parental and institutional risk aversion affecting many activities
with children in his book "No Fear".[5] Another obstacle is the
perceived high cost of facilitating outdoor learning. Creating an outdoor
learning environment needn't cost a great deal, however. The UK Early Years
Framework Stage, which outlines best practice in Early Years teaching, asserts
that: "Outdoor learning is more effective when adults focus on what children
need to be able to do rather than what children
need to have. An approach that
considers experiences rather than equipment places
children at the centre of learning and ensures that individual children's
learning and developmental needs are taken account of and met effectively"[6]
Linda
Tallent, a UK-based educational consultant who has worked extensively with
schools to develop their outdoor spaces into learning environments, agrees. She
believes that by focussing on activities and skill development, it is possible
to develop an outdoor learning curriculum on a 'shoe string'.[7] She cites a comment by Will
Nixon, who reminds readers that 'Using the real world is the way learning has
happened for 99.9% of human existence. Only in the last hundred years have we
put it into a little box called a classroom.'.[8]Tallent also refers to evidence from a
number of studies that the most effective way of learning is through
participation, and calls on educators to make a special effort to create
opportunities for children to participate in their learning.
Aims
Some
typical aims of outdoor education are to:
learn how to overcome adversity
enhance personal and social development
develop a deeper relationship with nature.
Outdoor
education spans the three domains of self, others, and the natural world. The
relative emphasis of these three domains varies from one program to another. An
outdoor education program can, for example, emphasize one (or more) of these
aims to:
********************************
ontinuous Risk Assessment & Audit Planning
Process
Internal
Audit Division (IAD) continuously performs risk assessments (RA) of
University units, processes and services to identify areas of high
risk. The RA process is at the core of our audit and consulting
engagements and is used as an objective tool in the development of our
Audit Plans. Our assessment focuses on exposures relating to the University’s
governance, operations, and information systems regarding the:
reliability and integrity of financial and
operational information
effectiveness and efficiency of operations
safeguarding of assets
compliance with University and UNC System
policy
compliance with legal, regulatory, and
contractual obligations
detection and prevention of fraud
Objective Risk Factor Criteria
Financial – generally covers budget risk, cash management risk, loss
of revenue, cost to recover from failures or other incidents.
Misuse – generally covers misappropriation/misuse of state funds
(e.g., fraud, bid rigging, payments to fictitious vendors or employees,
use of fraudulent journal entries to conceal the diversion of funds, or
embezzlement). Misuse risk is increased in the absence of
appropriate controls.
Security – loss of confidentiality, integrity or availability of
University Assets (logical or physical); e.g., sensitive critical data,
systems, or assets.
Compliance – generally includes
non-compliance to University policies, state or federal requirements,
or contractual agreements (e.g., Human Resources policies, state
spending guidelines, federal requirements for sponsored research).
Reputational – potential to affect the reputation of the University with
stakeholders (e.g., Board of Trustees, UNC System, state legislature,
federal granting agencies, students, faculty, alumni, business partners,
and state citizens).
Operational – affects the delivery of core functions of the
unit/department/college/university. Factors to consider include the amount of
change in the structure of the unit, the quality of management in the unit, and
the quality of the internal control environment. Information comes from
prior audits and continuous risk assessments/networking.
Subjective Criteria
Throughout the year, IA meets both formally and informally with University administrative and academic executive management, deans, business officers, department heads, faculty, and staff. All information relating to risk, potential or existing, along with special requests for audits, and identified areas of concern is documented on a “real-time” basis in our RA electronic and physical files.
Throughout the year, IA meets both formally and informally with University administrative and academic executive management, deans, business officers, department heads, faculty, and staff. All information relating to risk, potential or existing, along with special requests for audits, and identified areas of concern is documented on a “real-time” basis in our RA electronic and physical files.
Types of Continuous Assessment
Continuous
assessment is more likely to be formative, process-oriented, informal,
internal, learner-involved, and/or self-referenced in nature. It can take the
form of daily work (e.g. essays, quizzes, presentation and participation in class),
projects/term papers and practical work (e.g. laboratory work, fieldwork,
clinical procedures, drawing practice).
Daily work
Pros
This is
likely to be the most sustained means of assessment, and in providing
relatively prompt feedback, it serves to reinforce or correct learned
responses.
It
assists in pacing learning. If a course is broken into units, each assessed on
completion, students have regular feedback of what they have mastered (and what
they need additional work on).
As the
most extensive means of assessment, it has a sustained impact on and improves
the quality of student learning.
Cons and possible solutions
As it is
fairly labour intensive for both students and the teacher, decisions will have
to be taken regarding an optimum level. Too many assignments may result in
justice not being done to them all. It is probably better to have regular but
smaller assignments than large-scale but infrequent ones. Experience indicates
that giving students more feedback results in faster learning and less
confusion.
Vigilance
will be needed to ensure that plagiarism and other forms of cheating do not go
undetected. Make clear to students that a very serious view will be taken of
such offences. Point out that it is not only dishonest but short-sighted to abuse
the important learning experience involved in preparing an assignment. As a
countercheck, arrange for some of the assignments to be done and completed in
class.
Projects/term papers
Pros
They provide a measure of the student’s ability to:
They provide a measure of the student’s ability to:
collect,
select and use data/information;
undertake
independent study and enquiry;
plan and
follow through a fairly large-scaled piece of work;
integrate
theory and practice;
work with
others, when the exercise involves teamwork.
Cons and possible solutions
It is
difficult to ensure parity in the projects. Careful coordination in the setting
of topics is important.
Project
work may lead to over-involvement at the expense of other aspects of the
course. Tutors/supervisors should therefore guide students in defining tasks
and in being selective with regards to content.
It may be
difficult to maintain consistency and fairness in marking across a range of
projects/papers. To mitigate this, project objectives should be clearly
identified and some broad criteria for assessment set. Wherever possible, two
examiners should be used.
Students
may receive unequal supervision and this may affect the quality of the
completed project. Agreement should be made among tutors/supervisors to
standardise the degree of direction and guidance to be given to students.
Criteria for evaluation should be available to students in advance as these
provide direction.
It may be
difficult to assign individual marks to students working in a group project,
but this may be resolved by orally examining each student to establish their
knowledge of the subject and the degree of his/her contribution. Alternatively,
have students work on projects individually.
Practical work
Pros
It provides a measure of:
It provides a measure of:
ability
to relate theory to practice;
students’
techniques, procedures and practical skills.
.
.
Cons and
possible solutions
The
contribution to a student’s final grade is low in relation to the amount of
work involved. To give it due value, emphasise its importance as a learning
process.
Too much
emphasis may be given to the written report without sufficient consideration to
the actual process and performance. To avoid this, instructors should
scrutinise practical work closely and question students about their
organisation of the work and their findings.
The theoretical
and practical aspects of the course may not be sufficiently linked. Obviously,
it is important to communicate frequently with those involved in managing
different parts of the course.
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